Heat and Temperature. Before studying HEAT, you should know the basic structure of matter. Using and controlling it has built our civilization.
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1 EA Notes (Scen 101), Tillery Chapter 4 Heat and Temperature Introduction Heat is an important part of our study of energy. Using and controlling it has built our civilization. All energy forms can be converted into heat. Before studying HEAT, you should know the basic structure of matter. (Lecture sequence, with Heat Flow last, is different from text.) The Kinetic Molecular Theory (Model) The name of the basic theory of matter. The word "KINETIC" means the molecules are ALWAYS moving EVEN IN SOLID MATERIALS. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-1 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
2 Atoms The basic building blocks of matter. About 100 different CHEMICAL types called ELEMENTS. ( See Periodic Table, Page 591 after Chap 7. ) Tiny, indivisible particles. Atoms in matter are separated by large spaces. Molecules One or more different atoms combined in specific ratios. He, O 2, H 2 O. Molecule is the smallest entity that retains the PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL properties of a substance. Molecules are starting point for describing structure of matter. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-2 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
3 Molecules Interact Cohesion: the attractive force between LIKE molecules. Solids and liquids have stronger cohesion than gases. Adhesion: the attractive force between UNLIKE molecules. Glues and liquids that wet solids have strong adhesion. Phases of Matter There are 4 phases that matter can be in: Solid: Keeps its own volume and shape. Molecules very cohesive. ( Fig.4.3,p.87: balls connected by springs is one MODEL to help describe what we can't see. Spring equations give correct results. ) All except helium are solid at lowest possible temperature. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-3 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
4 Liquid: Keeps its volume, but takes shape of bottom of container. Molecules SLIGHTLY less cohesive. As temperature is increased most solids become liquids. Gas: Expands in volume and fills entire container. Molecules not cohesive. As temperature is increased all materials become gases. Fluid: (NOT one of the 4 phases). Name that includes both liquids and gases. Plasma: At VERY HIGH temperatures, molecules break apart into freely moving charged atoms. The STARS are mostly plasma. (99% of the universe.) We won't study plasmas any further in this course. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-4 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
5 Molecules Move The 3 kinds of motion a molecule can have are: Vibration: Atoms alternate closer together and further apart. Occurs in ALL Phases. The ONLY motion possible in solids. Rotation: Atoms keep their spacing and rotate around common center. Occurs in LIQUIDS and GASSES (but not in SOLIDS). Translation: Atoms keep their spacing and move together in the same direction. Occurs in LIQUIDS (short distance) and GASSES (larger distance). Each molecule has its own KE within a wide range of values. An average KE for all the molecules can be calculated (by spring model). Experiments show average KE increases linearly with temperature. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-5 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
6 Temperature Temperature Scales were originally defined with "available" standards. Today there's a scientific standard alongside the earlier ones: The AVERAGE Internal KE of the molecules of the object. Temp. does NOT change with mass (number of molecules). Thermometers Devices in which some physical property changes with temperature. Most use length or volume, which increases with temperature. liquid in glass, ( Demo on Board. ) bimetallic strip. ( Demo on Board. ) Electronic properties are now becoming more important. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-6 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
7 Thermometer Scales We'll study 3 temperature scales. (First two on this slide.) Fahrenheit scale: Originally defined with 0 as the freezing point of brine and 100 as the human body temperature. Not easily reproducible. Celsius scale: Defined with 0 C and 100 C standard points as freezing and boiling temperatures of pure water (at standard atmospheric air pressure of 760 Torr). Easy to purify water. Fahrenheit scale (again): Then redefined with water standard temperatures at 32 F & 212 F. (This choice provides a fractional multiplier, 5/9 or 9/5, to convert between scales.) C > F: T F = 9 T 5 C + 32 _ F F > C: T C = 5 9 ( T F 32 _ F ) EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-7 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
8 Kelvin scale: No known upper limit to temperature, but TWO experiments show there is a lower limit. ( DRAW CURVES ) At 273 C : 1. A gas's volume goes LINEARLY to zero; 2. An object's internal KE goes LINEARLY to zero (molecular motion stops). Temperatures lower than this are IMPOSSIBLE!! 273 C is made equal to the zero of the SI temperature scale, the Absolute or Kelvin scale [K]. By convention, we do not use the with the K scale. K and C degrees are the same size, thus: C > K: T K = T C The Water Standard Temperatures are 273 K and 373 K. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-8 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
9 Heat Heat is the energy added to or removed from an object that causes its temperature to change. (More accurate definition next slide.) There are many ways to add or remove heat from an object. Here's one: If you do work against friction, one surface slides against another. ( The surfaces may be any combination of solids, liquids, or gases. ) Sliding increases average KE of molecules > temperature increases. For surfaces moving at ordinary speeds, the increase is small. For meteorites, the increase is enough to burn them. Work against friction always ADDS heat to BOTH surfaces. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap4-9 - Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
10 Internal and External Energy of Object External: PE+KE of the entire OBJECT'S position and motion. Internal: KE+PE Summed up for all of object's MOLECULES. Adding Heat increases internal energy, removing Heat decreases it. Heat as Energy Transfer Heat is the Internal energy transferred into or out of an object that causes its temperature to change. Difference between Temperature & Heat Temperature: Measures Average Internal KE of the molecules of the object. Heat: This Average does NOT vary with mass (number of molecules). Energy that changes Total Internal KE & PE of object. This Energy Total DOES vary with mass (and substance). EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
11 Measures of Heat Symbol Q Joule [J] (since it is energy) Older Units that are still heavily used: Defined with Water standard. 1 calorie [cal] = heat to raise 1 g water 1 C = J 1 kilocalorie [kcal] = heat to raise 1 kg water 1 C = 4184 J { Dietitian's Calorie = 1 kilocalorie } 1 British Thermal Unit [Btu] = 252 cal Mechanical Equivalent of Heat (1849) 1 cal = J ( J cal ) Rumford's experimental measurement of this value showed heat is a form of energy that can be converted back and forth from other forms. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
12 Heat vs. T Formula & Specific Heat Find Q needed to change temperature of m kg of Water: From the kilocalorie definition: Q [ kcal ] = m [ kg ] T [ _ C ] Formula for water:. {Board Demo} For most other materials, less heat is needed. Specific Heat of a substance: heat needed to change the temperature of one unit mass by 1 C. Table values for each material. Symbol: c ( lower case ) Units: ( for mass in kg ): kcal/kg C ( for mass in g ): cal/g C The numerical value is the same for each set of units. Values are Table.4.2, p.95. Heat vs. m and T: Q = m c T (Use with ALL substances.) Do Ex. B-4, p.113 & Ex. B-9, p.113. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
13 Heat Flow Rule: IF there is a temperature difference between two points, AND there is a way to transfer energy, Heat will be transferred from higher to lower temperature. 3 METHODS OF TRANSFER: Conduction: Uses collisions between molecules (or electron flow in metals) Hotter molecules vibrate faster and transfer energy to neighbors. Rate of Conduction: Table 4.3 is on p.97. Metals are the best heat conductors, other solids & liquids are in the middle, gases and foams the poorest conductors. ( Called insulators ). Vacuum = 0, ( no molecules ). EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
14 Convection: Carried by flow of a liquid or gas. (NOT IN A SOLID!!) Heat enters the convecting fluid by Conduction. This then starts: Natural Convection: Warmed fluid expands slightly. Lower density rises in surrounding cooler, more dense, fluid. Fan forced convection speeds distribution of heat. Radiation: Transfer by Radiated Waves. Every object Radiates energy (as Electromagnetic Waves). Radiated Watts m T K, so you don't notice the heat until the temperature gets well above 1000 K, like a light bulb filament or the surface of the Sun. DEMO: ( Describe Vacuum Thermos bottle. ) EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
15 Energy, Heat, and Molecular Theory Phase Change Recall: Heat changes Total Internal KE & PE of object. Now we'll explain how phase changes occur: ( Draw Curve ) MELTING AND BOILING: Start with a block of frozen water below 0 C and continually add heat. Added Q is now increasing Internal KE (KE proportional to T). When T reaches the melting point, it temporarily stops increasing. Added Q is now increasing Internal PE breaking cohesive bonds one by one, until all ice has melted. Latent Heat of Fusion (L f ): The Q needed to melt unit mass of material { 80 cal/g or kcal/kg for water } When all ice has melted to water, added Q again increases the Internal KE; and T again rises proportional to Q. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
16 MELTING AND BOILING: ( Continued ) When T reaches the boiling point, it temporarily stops increasing. Added Q is again increasing Internal PE breaking cohesive bonds one by one, until all water has boiled. Latent Heat of Vaporization (L v ): The Q needed to boil unit mass of material { 540 cal/g or kcal/kg for water } When all the water has boiled into steam, its T starts to rise again. FREEZING AND CONDENSING: The process is completely reversible, with heat being liberated as we go from steam to water or water to ice. That's why steam is so dangerous. Q = ± m L f + if melting or boiling Heat vs. m and L: Q = ± m L v if freezing or condensing ( Cover Fig. 4.18, p.100) { ALSO: Discuss Practical Uses of Phase Changes. } [ Optional: Do Ex. B-13, p.113. ] EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
17 P h a s e C h a n g e s ( C o n t i nued ) SUBLIMATION: Direct change from solid to gas. Only a few materials do this. Evaporation and Condensation Evaporation: From liquid to vapor at temperatures BELOW boiling point. Since Temp. measures average KE of molecules, some have enough KE to break their cohesive bond, and leave the liquid state. Evap. Rate depends on liquid Temp. Condensation: Capture by a surface of some nearby vapor molecules. Cond. Rate depends on number of vapor molecules. Saturation: When Evaporation and Condensation Rates are in balance. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
18 Optional Readings No quiz or test questions on this material. Don't try them if you find the text unclear. T h e r m o dynamics This major branch of Physics is important in the design of Internal combustion engines, Heat pumps (for home heating), Refrigerators and Air conditioners. The Second Law of Thermodynamics explains why less than 100% of energy converted to heat can be recovered as useful work. EA Lec Notes (Scen 101) Til6Ed-Chap Printed 12/11/2004, 9:02 PM
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