Design Verification and Test of Digital VLSI Circuits NPTEL Video Course. Module-VII Lecture-I Introduction to Digital VLSI Testing
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1 Design Verification and Test of Digital VLSI Circuits NPTEL Video Course Module-VII Lecture-I Introduction to Digital VLSI Testing
2 VLSI Design, Verification and Test Flow Customer's Requirements Specifications Manual Architecture Synthesis High Level Synthesis Scheduling Allocation/Binding Verification of RTL design with Specifications RTL Design Front-end Logic Synthesis Back-end Physical Layout Verification of Logic circuit with RTL Design Floor Planning Placement & Routing Verification of circuit extracted from layout with logic circuit
3 VLSI Design, Verification and Test Flow Test Planning Fabrication Manufacturing Test Chips to Customers
4 Introduction to Philosophy of Testing If anything can go wrong, it will --A very well known statement known as Murphy s Law. Testing a system comprises subjecting it to inputs and checking its outputs to verify whether it behaves as per the specifications targeted during design.
5 Example: Electrical Iron Plug it in 220V AC and see if is heating. functional specification, that also partially. Safety: All exposed metal parts of the iron are grounded Auto-off on overheating Detailed Functionality Heating when powered ON. Glowing of LED to indicate power ON. Temperature matching with specification for different ranges that can be set using the regulator (e.g., woolen, silk, cotton etc.)
6 Performance Example: Electrical Iron Power consumption as per the specifications Time required to reach the desired temperature when range is changed using the regulator Tests for ONLY electrical parameters. Tests for mechanical parameters, like maximum height from which there is resistance to breaking of plastic parts if dropped on a tiled floor etc. Number of tests performed depends on the time, equipments etc. which in turn is decided by the target price of the product.
7 Example: NAND Gate v 1 v 2 o 1 Input Output v 1 v 2 o This test for the NAND gate is just the starting point
8 Detailed tests for the NAND gate Digital Functionality Verify input/output of Table 1 Delay Test 0 to 1: time taken by the gate to rise from 0 to 1. v1=1, v2=1 changed to v1=1, v2=0; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 0 to 1. v1=1, v2=1 changed to v1=0, v2=1; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 0 to 1. v1=1, v2=1 changed to v1=0, v2=0; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 0 to 1.
9 Detailed tests for the NAND gate 1 to 0: time taken by the gate to fall from 1 to 0. v1=0, v2=0 changed to v1=1, v2=1; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 1 to 0. v1=1, v2=0 changed to v1=1, v2=1; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 1 to 0. v1=0, v2=1 changed to v1=1, v2=1; After this change in input, time taken by o 1 to change from 1 to 0. Fan-out capability: Number of gates connected at o 1 which can be driven by the NAND gate.
10 Detailed tests for the NAND gate Power consumption of the gate Static power: measurement of power when the output of the gate is not switching. Dynamic power: measurement of power when the output of the gate switches from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 0. Threshold Level Minimum voltage at input considered at logic 1 Maximum voltage at input considered at logic 0 Voltage at output for logic 1 Voltage at output for logic 0 Test at extreme conditions Performing the tests at temperatures (Low and High Extremes) as claimed in the specification document. Tests are for the logic level of the NAND gate.
11 Detailed tests for the NAND gate VDD v 1 v 2 T1 - T2 o 1 Drain + I DS v 1 T3 Body Gate V BS V DS v 1 T4 V GS GND Source Nmos (T3) CMOS implementation for the NAND gate
12 Detailed tests for the NAND gate Output Characteristics a set of I DS vs V DS curves for different constant values of the gate-source voltage V GS Transfer characteristics a set of I DS vs V GS curves for different values of the substrate-source voltage V BS, at constant V DS Threshold Voltage Test Threshold Voltage obtained in test, matches the specifications
13 Detailed tests for the NAND gate Layout of a NAND gate in a silicon die
14 Optimal Quality of Test Given a digital logic gate, what tests are to be performed to assure an acceptable quality of product at reasonable price. Test for the NAND gate should be such that results are accurate (say 99% above) yet time for testing is low (less than a millisecond). Table 1 for the NAND gate and at proper time DIGITAL TESTING is not testing digital circuits (comprised of logic gates). DIGITAL TESTING is defined as testing a digital circuit to verify that it performs the specified logic functions and in proper time.
15 Optimal Quality of Test Given a digital logic gate, what tests are to be performed to assure an acceptable quality of product at reasonable price. Test for the NAND gate should be such that results are accurate (say 99% above) yet time for testing is low (less than a millisecond). Table 1 for the NAND gate and at proper time DIGITAL TESTING is not testing digital circuits (comprised of logic gates). DIGITAL TESTING is defined as testing a digital circuit to verify that it performs the specified logic functions and in proper time.
16 VLSI circuit testing Versus Classical System Testing VLSI Testing Technology matures and faults tend to decrease, a new technology based on lower sub-micron devices evolves Diagnosed and repaired Classical Systems Basic technology is matured and well tested Binned as defective and scrapped (i.e., not repaired) Yield is Low Yield is almost 100% Expensive equipments and Specialized Manpower All Samples to be tested Test arrangements in design Simple Test Setups and Technicians Random Sample Testing Rarely Required
17 Digital VLSI test process
18 Automatic Test Equipment
19 Taxonomy of Digital Testing Criterion When tested? Where is the source of Test patterns? Attributes of testing method 1. Once after manufacture 2. Once before startup of circuit 3. Always during the system operation 1. An external tester 2. Within the chip 3. No patters applied, only monitoring Terminology 1. Manufacturing Test 2. Built in self test (BIST) 3. On-line testing (OLT) 1. Automatic Test Equipment (ATE) based testing 2. BIST 3. OLT
20 Taxonomy of Digital Testing Criterion Circuit in which form is being tested? How are the test patterns applied? Attributes of testing method Wafer IC Board System 1. In a fixed predetermined order 2. Depending on results Terminology 1. Non packaged IC level testing 2. Packaged level testing 3. Board level testing 4. System level testing Static Testing Adaptive testing
21 Taxonomy of Digital Testing Criterion Attributes of testing method Terminology How fast are the test patterns applied? Who verifies the test results by matching with golden response? 1. Much slower than the normal speed of operation 2. At normal speed of operation 1. On chip circuit 2. ATE 1. DC (static) testing 2. At-speed testing 1. BIST 2. Automatic Test Equipment (ATE) based testing
22 Test Economics Man hours for test plan development: Expert test engineers to make elaborate test plans. CAD tools for Automatic Test Pattern Generation Cost of ATE ATE is a multimillion dollar instrument. Cost of testing a chip in an ATE is dependent on time a chip is tested, the number of inputs/outputs pins frequency the test patters are to be applied
23 DFT/BIST circuitry Test Economics Additional circuitry kept on-chip to help in testing results in raise in chip area Rise in area power and lower yield At-speed testing by ATE is extremely expensive. Tradeoff Returns Proper binning of Chips: In case of VLSI testing, it is not of much concern as how many chips are binned as faulty, rather important is how many faulty chips are binned as normal. So, economic return from VLSI testing is the accuracy in shipping functionally perfect chips.
24 What we will study? Test Introduction to Digital Testing Lecture-II: Functional vs. Structural Testing Lecture-III: Fault Equivalence, Fault Dominance, Fault Collapsing and Checkpoint Theorem Fault Simulation and Testability Measures Lecture-I and II: Circuit Modeling and Algorithms for Fault Simulation Lecture-III: Combinational SCOAP Measures and Sequential SCOAP Measures Combinational Circuit Test Pattern Generation Lecture-I: Introduction to Automatic Test Pattern Generation (ATPG) and ATPG Algebras Lecture-II: Standard ATPG Algorithms
25 What we will study? Sequential Circuit Testing and Scan Chains Lecture-I: ATPG for Single-Clock Synchronous Circuits Lecture-II and III: Scan Chain based Sequential Circuit Testing Built in Self test (BIST) Lecture I: Introduction to BIST architecture Lecture II and III: Memory BIST
26 Thank you
27 Design Verification and Test of Digital VLSI Circuits NPTEL Video Course Module-VII Lecture-II Functional and Structural Testing
28 Introduction Circuit for Bit wise ANDing Test Pattern Test Pattern Output No Test patterns for functional testing
29 Introduction Need to apply 2 25 test patterns patterns per second (Mega Hz Tester), time required is 33 Seconds per chip. About million chips are to be tested in a run Seconds or Hours or Days or 62 years. Functional Testing cannot be performed due to extremely high testing time.
30 Structural Testing Structural testing, introduced by Eldred, verifies the correctness of the specific structure of the circuit in terms of gates and interconnects Structural Testing takes many fold less time compared Functional Testing yet maintaining the quality of test solution. Structural testing does not check the functionality of the entire circuit rather verifies if all the structural units (gates) are fault free. So structural testing is a kind of functional testing at unit (gate) level.
31 Structural Testing Example Test Pattern Output (OG1) (I1,I2,I3,I4,I5)
32 Structural Testing Example Number of test patterns required are (=160), which is many fold smaller than those required for functional testing (2 25 ). Time required for testing the circuit the using a 1 Mega Hz Tester is seconds and for a million samples is 16 seconds. Structural testing is highly beneficial over functional testing.
33 Structural Testing Penalties Each individual gate is tested; however, the integration is not tested. To test the individual gates, controlling and observing values of intermediary nets in a circuit becomes mandatory, which adds to extra pins and hardware Circuit with about a million internal lines needs a million 2-1 Multiplexers and same number of extra pins. This requirement is infeasible.
34 Structural Testing Penalties
35 Structural Testing With Internal Memory A 32-bit adder requires 2 32 test patterns for exhaustive functional testing.
36 Structural Testing With Internal Memory The 32-bit adder requires 2 3 test patterns for exhaustive structural testing. Extra Pins 3 2 Sets of Registers 2:1 Muxes
37 Structural Testing With Internal Memory Use of internal registers Problem of huge number of extra pins could be solved Added huge size of shift registers (equal to number of internal nets). In a typical circuit there are tens of thousand of internal lines. Efficient structural testing is the one with less number of on-chip components and yet maintaining the quality of test solution. Structural testing with Fault Models is the answer to the requirement ``Structural testing is functional testing at a level lower than the basic inputoutput functionality of the system''. Bitwise ANDing circuit, unit for structural testing--gates 32-bit adder---full adders Digital circuits, structural testing is ``functional testing at the level of gates and flip-flops
38 Structural Testing with Fault Models Structural testing with fault models involves verifying each unit (gate and flip flop) is free from faults of the fault model. A model is an abstract representation of a system. modeling reduces the complexity in representation but captures all the properties of the original system required for the application in question. Fault model is an abstraction of the real defects in the silicon such that the faults of the model are easy to represent should ensure that if one verifies that no faults of the model are in the circuit, quality of test solution is maintained.
39 Structural Testing with Fault Models Unconnected net I1 is the defect. Error is, when I1=1, I2=1,I3=1,I4=1, I5=1 but OG1=0 (should be 1 in normal case). Fault is, net I1 is stuck at 0 (when gate is modeled at binary logic level).
40 Types of Fault Models Stuck-at fault model: Faults are fixed (0 or 1) value to a net. Stuck at-0 and Stuck at-1 single stuck-at fault model Multiple stuck at fault model Delay fault model: Increase the input to output delay of one logic gate, at a time. Bridging Fault: A short between a group of nets AND Bridge OR Bridge
41 Single Stuck-at Fault Model: Fanouts If fanout along with all its branches is a single electrical net, then why fault in a branch does not affect the others? Only one net is faulty at a time. The faulty net is permanently set to either 0 or 1. The branches of a fanout net are independent with respect to locations and affect of a stuck-at fault.
42 Single Stuck-at Fault Model Several stuck-at faults can be simultaneously present in the circuit. A circuit with n lines can have 3 n -1 possible stuck line combinations; each net can be: s-a-1, s-a-0, or faultfree. Handling multiple stuck-at faults in a typical circuit with some hundreds of thousands of nets is infeasible. Single stuck-at fault model is manageable in number and also provides acceptable quality of test solution, it is the most accepted fault model.
43 Structural Testing with Stuck-at Fault Model I1=1, I2=1,.,I25=1, is a test pattern for the stuckat-0 fault at net I1
44 Structural Testing with Stuck-at Fault Model I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1, is a test pattern for the stuck-at-1 fault at net I1.
45 Structural Testing with Stuck-at Fault Model I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1, is a test pattern for the stuckat-1 fault at net output of G1. I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1 tests both s-a-1 at net I1 and output of G1. In structural testing with stuck-at fault model, one test pattern can test more than one fault.
46 Pros and cons for structural testing with stuck-at fault model Pors No extra pin outs or DFT circuitry like 2-1 Multiplexers and shift resisters for controlling and observing internal nets Low test time as one test pattern can test multiple stuck-at faults Cons Functionality is not tested, even for the units (gates and Flip-flops). However, testing history reveals that even with this price paid, quality of test solution is maintained.
47 . Comparison of structural and functional testing Functional testing Without fault models. Manually generated design verification test patterns. Slow and labor intensive. Fault coverage not known More Test Patterns Can be applied at the operating speed. Structural Testing With fault models. Automatic test pattern generation (ATPG). Efficient and automated. Fault Coverage is a quantified metric. Less Test Patterns Difficult to be applied at the speed the design is expected to work.
48 Questions and Answers What are the problems of structural testing without fault models, if the units are as atomic as gates and as large as arithmetic block like 32-bit adder and 64-multiplier How many silicon level defects result in nets getting stuck? Explain relevance of stuck-fault model from that perspective
49 Thank you
50 Design Verification and Test of Digital VLSI Circuits NPTEL Video Course Module-VII Lecture-III Fault Equivalence
51 Introduction If there are n nets in a circuit then there can be 2n stuck-at faults The number of test patterns is liner in the number of nets in a circuit. The total number of test patterns required 2n??
52 Structural Testing with Stuck-at Fault Model I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1, is a test pattern for the stuck-at-1 fault at net I1.
53 Structural Testing with Stuck-at Fault Model I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1, is a test pattern for the stuckat-1 fault at net output of G1. I1=0, I2=1,.,I25=1 tests both s-a-1 at net I1 and output of G1. In structural testing with stuck-at fault model, one test pattern can test more than one fault.
54 Fault Equivalence For Single Stuck-At Fault Model Two stuck-at faults f1 and f2 are called equivalent iff the output function represented by the circuit with f1 is same as the output function represented by the circuit with f2. Obviously, equivalent faults have exactly the same set of test patterns. In the AND gate of Figure 1, all stuck-at-0 faults are equivalent as they transform the circuit to O=0 and have I1=1, I2=1 as the test pattern.
55 Fault Equivalence For Single Stuck-At Fault Model All stuck-at-0 faults are equivalent as they transform the circuit to O=0 and have I1=1, I2=1 as the test pattern.
56 Fault Equivalence For Single Stuck-At Fault Model: Fanouts The faults in the stem and branches are not equivalent. Fault at stem results in same output functions of the stem and the branches Fault is in branch I1, then function of stem is I1=0/1 (as driven) and for the branch I1 (I1 ) function is I1 =0 (I1 =I1). Output function of I1 is different from I1 and I1.
57 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example
58 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example
59 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example
60 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
61 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
62 Fault Equivalence based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
63 Fault Dominance For Single Stuck-At Fault Model If all tests of a stuck-at fault f1 detect fault f2 then f2 dominates f1. If f2 dominants f1 then f2 can be removed and only f1is retained.
64 Fault Dominance For Single Stuck-At Fault Model
65 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example
66 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example
67 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example
68 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
69 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
70 Fault Dominance based Collapsing: Example with fanouts
71 Check point theorem. A circuit with no fanouts, s-a-0 and s-a-1 faults is to be considered only at the primary inputs. So in a fanout free circuit test patters are 2x(Number of primary inputs). For circuit with fanout, checkpoints are primary inputs and fanout branches. Faults are to be kept only on the checkpoints. So a test pattern set that detects all single stuck-at faults of the checkpoints detects all single stuck-at faults in that circuit.
72 Questions and Answers For what class of circuits, maximum benefit is achieved due to fault collapsing and when the benefits are less? What is the typical number for test patterns required to test these classes of circuits? What faults can be collapsed by equivalence in case of XOR gate?
73 Answers
74 Thank you
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