Discursive crises in the political domain

Transcription

1 Discursive crises in the political domain Research into the applicability of theories of discourse analysis on the Dutch political debate on immigration Master Thesis Just Bär Research conducted for the completion of the Master Specialization Conflict, Territories and Identities, Faculty Human Geography, Department Management Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen Thesis supervisor: Jaïr van der Lijn

2 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been written if it weren t for the tireless effort of certain individuals. The majority of the research was conducted while doing an internship at FORUM Instituut voor multiculturele vraagstukken. During this period, I was under the supervision of Chris van der Borgh, Renée Frissen and in particular Floris Müller. I wish to thank them for all their support and constructive criticism, which greatly influenced in shaping the thesis. Moreover, I wish to thank them for actively involving me in the activities of FORUM. I very much enjoyed the working environment and appreciated the interest of all colleagues in my research. I owe special thanks to my thesis supervisor Jaïr van der Lijn of Radboud University Nijmegen/ Instituut Clingendael for all his advice and above all his patience. I understand that this research subject somewhat deviates from the field of conflict studies; and realize that on occasion this student was somewhat negligent in following university regulations. The process of writing this thesis has proven to be very interesting but difficult. The subject of Dutch political discourse has been on my mind for a long time, far before starting the master of Conflicts, Territories and Identities. The master s thesis provided me with an opportunity to conduct a research on this subject. The results of that research lie before you in the form of this master s thesis. Enjoy reading, Just Bär 1-1

3 Table of content ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1-1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND THEORETICAL DISCUSSION PROBLEM DEFINITION AIM OF RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESES OPERATIONALIZATION RELEVANCE STRUCTURE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK DISCOURSE DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF CRISIS IDEOLOGY IN DISCOURSE DISCOURSE COALITION POWER OF LANGUAGE LEGITIMIZATION AND POLARIZATION DOMINANCE AND AUTHORITY IN SPEECH ACTS CONTEXT HISTORICAL CONTEXT GOVERNMENT POLICY ON IMMIGRATION AND INTEGRATION CASE STUDIES METHODOLOGY GROUNDED THEORY METHOD SENSITIZING CONCEPTS DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS RESEARCH LIMITATIONS CASE KOPVODDENTAKS REPERTOIRES ANALYSIS PER PARTY RESPONSE TO THE DISCURSIVE CRISIS OF THE HEADSCARF TAX CASE NORWAY ATTACKS REPERTOIRES ANALYSIS PER PARTY RESPONSE TO DISCURSIVE CRISIS OF XENOPHOBIA

4 7. CASE PLATFORM MEE-LANDERS REPERTOIRES ANALYSIS PER PARTY RESPONSE TO THE DISCURSIVE CRISIS OF THE MEE-LANDERS PLATFORM CONCLUDING REMARKS EMPLOYMENT OF DIFFERENT REPERTOIRES HOW DID DUTCH POLITICAL ACTORS RESPOND TO DISCURSIVE CRISES IN THE DUTCH POLITICAL DEBATE ON IMMIGRATION, IN THREE CASE STUDIES? (2) POLITICIANS DISCURSIVELY CONSTRUCT A CRISIS TO GAIN SUPPORT FOR THEIR POLITICAL AGENDA (3) IDEOLOGY IS THE DRIVING FORCE BEHIND POLITICAL DISCOURSE ON IMMIGRATION (4) POLITICIANS FORM ALLIANCES THAT FIT THE NOTION OF HAJER S DISCOURSE COALITION TO ADVANCE THEIR INTEREST IN THE IMMIGRATION DEBATE REFLECTION ON RESEARCH LITERATURE ACADEMIC ARTICLES PARLIAMENTARY DOCUMENTS MEDIA 2 1-3

5 List of abbreviations CDA CU Ch r ist en Dem o cr a t isch Ap p è l Ch r ist en Un ie D6 6 Dem o cr a t en 6 6 GL Ho C LPF LURA MEE MP PM Pvd A Pvd D PVV SGP SP VVD Gr o en Lin k s Ho u se o f Co m m o n s Lijst Pim Fo r t u y n Lessen u it r ecen t e a r b eid sm igr a t ie Mid d le a n d Ea st er n Eu r o p ea n Mem b er o f Pa r lia m en t Pr im e Min ist er Pa r t ij va n d e Ar b e id Pa r t ij vo o r d e Dier e n Pa r t ij vo o r d e Vr ijh eid St a a t k u n d ig Ger efo r m eer d e Pa r t ij So cia list isch e Pa r t ij Vo lk sp a r t ij vo o r Vr ijh eid en Dem o cr a t ie 1-4

6 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Fo r t h e p a st d eca d es, im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n h a ve b een t o p ics o f h ea t ed d eb a t es wit h in t h e Du t ch p o lit ica l a r en a. Bein g a n o p e n so ciety, t h e Neth er la n d s is su b ject o f a n o n -go in g in flu x o f p eo p le. Ma n y im m igr a n t s a r r ive wit h exp e ct a t io n s o f b u ild in g a life wit h in Du t ch so ciety t h is d em a n d s fr o m t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in t h a t it co n t in u o u sly a ssesses t h e fr a m e wo r k o f im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n. In t h e la st d eca d e, a lin e o f t h o u gh t th a t is m o r e r est r ict ive o f im m igr a t io n h a s b eco m e p r e va len t in t h e p o lit ica l a n d p u b lic d eb a t e. Th er e a r e p o lit ica l a ct o r s t h a t wa r n fo r t h e d a n ger s o f a llo win g cer t a in im m igr a n t s in t o t h e Neth er la n d s t h ey sp ea k o f t h e p h en o m en a o f im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n a s cr ises. Esp ecia lly Mu slim im m igr a n t s a r e co n sid er ed t o b e a t h r ea t a n d so m e p o lit ica l a ct o r s h a ve fu elled d ist r u st t o wa r d s th em. St a t em en t s o f t h is so r t h a ve b eco m e co m m o n p la ce in t h e p o lit ica l a n d p u b lic d eb a t e. Co n co m it a n t ly, a vo ice t h a t o p p o ses th ese st a t em en t s h a s a r isen ; p o lit icia n s t h a t u se it em p h a size t h e n ega t ive effect s o f a d ist r u st in g a t t it u d e. Th ese d iffer en t t y p es o f d isco u r ses co m p ete with in t h e polit ica l d o m a in t o effect u a t e p o licy ch a n ges t h a t a r e in lin e w it h eit h er lin e o f t h o u gh t. 1.2 Theoretical discussion Th e p er cep t io n o f t h e r o le o f la n gu a ge in so cia l life h a s gr a d u a lly ch a n ged in t h e a ca d em ic wo r ld. In t h e p o sit ivist t r a d it io n in t h e so cia l scien ces, la n gu a ge wa s seen a s a m ean s, a s a n eu t r a l sy st em o f sign s t h a t d escr ib ed t h e wo r ld. Wit h t h e co m in g o f t h e p o st - p o sit ivist so cia l scien ces, h o wever, la n gu a ge lo st t h is n eu t r a l st a t u s a n d it self b eca m e p r o b lem a t ized. (Ha jer ; 4 4 ) Aft er t h is lin gu ist ic t u r n, la n gu a ge is r eco gn ize d a s a m ed iu m ; a ct o r s d o n o t 1-5

7 o n ly d escr ib e t h e wo r ld b u t creat e t h e wo r ld t h r o u gh la n gu a ge. Th is r esea r ch b u ild s o n t h e wo r k s o f t h a t sch o o l o f t h o u gh t. Th e a ca d em ic field o f wo r k t h a t h a s b r o u gh t fo r t h a m a ssive a m o u n t o f a r t icles o n t h e field o f la n gu a ge st u d ies is t h a t o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis. In t h is field o f r esea r ch, la n gu a ge p r o vid es in su fficien t in fo r m a t ive p o wer. Fo r a co m p lete u n d er st a n d in g o f t h e fu n ct io n o f la n gu a ge, it m u st b e p la ce d wit h in it s co n t ext st r u ct u r e t o ca r r y exp la n a t o r y weigh t. Th a t la n gu a ge m a t t er s h a s b eco m e a co m m o n a ssu m p t io n, u p o n wh ich m u ch r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u ct ed. Differ en ces o ccu r in t h e wa y s t h a t m ea n in g is a t t a ch ed t o la n gu a ge a n d sp eech a ct s m a n y in t er p r eta t io n s exist wit h in t h e a ca d em ic field o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis in th is r ega r d. Th e o r igin o f t h is r esea r ch st em s fr o m t h e p er ceived d iscr ep a n cies b etween t h eo r ies o n t h e m a t t er s o f im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n wit h in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in. A few o f t h ese t h eo r etica l d iffer en ces a r e lo o k ed in t o a n d a r e fu r t h er exp lo r ed. Th e issu es t h a t p o lit icia n s wa n t t o p u t o n t h e a gen d a a r e o ft en co m m u n ica t ed a s b ein g u r gen t p r o b lem s; cr ises t h a t ca ll fo r t h o r o u gh a ct io n. Su ch a cr isis is co n st r u ct ed t h r o u gh a d iscu r sive p r a ct ice sp eech a ct s ser ve t o sh o w t h e u r gen cy o f a n issu e in o r d er t o m o b ilize a p u b lic. Pa u l t Ha r t ( ) st a t es t h a t la n gu a ge is t h e m o st im p o r t a n t in st r u m en t o f cr isis m a n a gem en t a n d t h a t [t h o se] wh o a r e a b le t o d e fin e wh a t t h e cr isis is a ll a b o u t a lso h o ld t h e k ey t o d efin in g t h e a p p r o p r ia t e st r a t egies fo r r eso lu t io n. ( t Ha r t :9 1 ) Th is wo u ld su ggest t h a t t h e p o lit icia n t h a t r a ises a n issu e m igh t a lso b e t h e o n e wh o se p o licy p la n s a r e a d o p t ed, in d eed, h e d efin ed wh a t t h e cr isis wa s a b o u t. Bu t [c]r ises a r e t h e d o m a in o f m u lt ip le r ea lit ies a n d co n flict in g co gn it io n s, ( t Ha r t ;9 9 ) a n d t h o se wh o r a ise a n issu e d o n o t a u to m a t ica lly r eceive su p p o r t fo r t h eir ca u se. 1-6

8 Ma a r t en Ha je r h a s wr it t en o n t h e t o p ic o f a u t h o r it y in cr isis sit u a t io n s. Sp ecifica lly, h e h a s r esea r ch ed t h e r e a ct io n s o f figu r es o f a u t h o r it y in t h e wa k e o f t h e m u r d er o f Pim Fo r t u y n a n d o f Th eo va n Go gh (Ha jer & Uit er m a r k ; Ha jer & Ve r st eeg ). Wit h in p o lit ics, a ct o r s co m p ete wit h t h e u se of d iffer en t d isco u r ses in o r d er t o in flu en ce p o licy o n d iver se t o p ics. Th e t en sio n s b etween t h e lin es o f t h o u gh t m a k e t h e d eb a t es in t o a d y n a m ic field. Ha jer a n d Uit er m a r k ( ) sp ea k o f a d iscu r sive st r u ggle in wh ich p o lit ica l a ct o r s en ga ge t o a ct ively in flu en ce t h e m ea n in g o f [a n ] even t ( ; ). Co n cr etely, t h is in flu e n ce ca n t r a n sla t e t o d esir a b le p o licy ch a n ges fo r t h e p o lit ica l a ct o r t h a t su cceed s. Ha jer a n d Uit er m a r k ( ) n o t e h o w p eo p le lo o k to a u t h o r it y fo r cla r ifica t io n a n d in t er p r eta t io n o f eve n t s in t im es o f cr isis. Figu r es o f a u t h o r it ies in t h eir t u r n a r e en ga ge d in a p o we r st r u ggle t o im p o se t h eir view o f r ea lit y o n to o t h er s (Ha jer a n d Uit er m a r k, ). Th ey st a t e t h a t in t im es o f cr isis, a u t h o r it ies m u st fo r m a llia n ces a n d co m m u n ica t e a co h er en t a n d u n ified a cco u n t o f t h e even t s t o effect ive ly t er m in a t e a cr isis. By d o in g so, t h ey co n so lid a t e t h eir p o wer, legit im a t e t h eir a u t h o r it y a n d ga in t r u st o f co n st it u en t s b y sh o win g t h ey a r e ca p a b le o f h a n d lin g a cr isis. Acco r d in g t o Co lin Ha y ( ), p o lit ica l a ct o r s ca n co n st r u ct a cr isis in o r d er t o ga in su p p o r t t o in st iga t e ch a n ges in t h e p o lit ica l st r u ct u r e. Beca u se t h e co n st r u ct io n o f cr isis is a d iscu r sive p r a ct ice, t h e m eth o d o f in q u ir y h er ein t o is d isco u r se a n a ly sis. If th e t h eo r y o f Ha y is p la u sib le, t h is r esea r ch sh o u ld y ield r esu lt s in wh ich we en co u n t er p o lit ica l a ct o r s co n st r u ct in g a cr isis t h r o u gh d iscu r sive p r a ct ice a n d co n seq u en t ly r eceivin g su p p o r t fo r t h eir ca u se. Cr isis is m o r e t h a n a co n d it io n o f r u p t u r e a n d b r ea k d o wn ; it is a p r o cess o f t r a n sfo r m a t io n. Th e co n st r u ct io n o f a cr isis is a m ech a n ism t h a t a im s t o cr ea t e m o m en t u m fo r (p o lit ica l) ch a n ge. Th e n a r r a t ive o f cr isis co n st it u t es a n o b ject a s in n eed o f d ecisive in t er ve n t io n, a n d a p r o ject t h r o u gh wh ich t h a t d ecisiv e in t er ven t io n ca n b e m a d e. (Ha y 1-7

9 ; ). In t ext s a n d sp eech a ct s, su b ject p o sit io n s a r e st r u ct u r e d wit h in t h e n a r r a t ive t o r ecr u it t h e r ea d er s a n d a d d r essees. Me d ia t ext s in vit e u s a s r ea d e r s, a ct ive d e co d er s a n d p o t en t ia l in t er p ella t es t o id en t ify wit h a p a r t icu la r p r efe r r ed su b ject p o sit io n. It is in t h is m o m en t o f id en t ifica t io n t h a t we r eco gn ise o u r h a ilin g. (Ha y ; ). In th e p o lit ica l d o m a in, t h is p r o cess o f co n vin cin g is a lwa y s p r esen t in sp eech a ct s, d if fer in g in st y le a n d su b t len ess, in Ha y s view. Va n Dijk ( ) st a t es t h a t t h er e is a clo se r ela t io n sh ip b etween d isco u r se, id eo lo gy a n d p o lit ics, in t h e sen se t h a t p o lit ics is u su a lly d iscu r sive a s well a s id eo lo gica l, a n d id eo lo gies a r e la r gely r ep r o d u ced b y t e xt a n d t a lk ( ; ). He d efin es id eo lo gies a s t h e b a sis o f so cia l r ep r esen t a t io n o f gr o u p s, wh ich a r e a n y k in d o f so cia lly sh a r ed m en t a l r ep r esen t a t io n (Va n Dijk ). Pa r lia m en t a r y d eb a t es a r e esp ecia lly in t er est in g a cco r d in g t o Va n Dijk, a s t h ey a r e t h e sit e wh er e t h e va r io u s id eo lo gica l fo r ces in so cie t y ( ) a r e co n fr o n t in g ea ch o t h er in t h e p u b lic sp h er e ( Ib id.). In t h is r esea r ch, excer p t s o f d eb a t es will b e a n a ly sed o n t h e p r esen ce o f id eo lo gica l co n t ext in it s m o st st r a igh t fo r wa r d gu ise [id eo lo gica l a n a ly sis] in vo lves d etect in g in t ext a n d t a lk t h e exp r essio n o f ( ) id eo lo gica lly b a sed o p in io n s ( Ib id.). Th is r esea r ch a ssesses wh eth er p o lit ica l d isco u r se in d eed is em in e n t ly id eo lo gica l d isco u r se, in a cco r d a n ce wit h t h e tea ch in gs o f Va n Dijk. Ma a r t en Ha jer ( , ) em p lo y ed t h e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a lit io n in h is a r t icles o n ch a n gin g p o lit ica l d isco u r se. Th e m o st b a sic d efin it io n is a gr o u p o f a ct o r s wh o sh a r e a so cia l co n st r u ct (Ha jer ; 4 5 ). In t h is r esea r ch, t h e co n cep t is u sed t o id en t ify t h e in st a n ces wh er e p o lit ica l a ct o r s a ffilia t ed wit h d iffe r en t p a r t ies em p lo y sim ila r r ep er t o ir es. Fr o m a n id eo lo gy -t h eo r etica l p er sp ect ive, a d isco u r se co a lit io n m a y o ccu r in t h e a r e a in wh ich d iffer in g d iscu r sive r ep er t o ir es h a ve id eo lo gica l in t er fa ces. A n ew 1-8

10 d isco u r se co a lit io n is lik ely t o b e o r ga n ised a r o u n d a n ew u n it in g p r in cip a l t h a t a p p ea ls t o d iffer en t gr o u p s (Ha jer ;2 5 8 ). Po lit ica l a ct o r s a d o p t in g t h e sa m e a r gu m en t in d ica t es a t co n sen su s o r a gr eem en t o r a t t h e sh a r ed r en u n cia t io n o f a p o lit ica l o p p o n en t s d isco u r se. If t h e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a lit io n is va lid, t h is r esea r ch wo u ld y ield r esea r ch in wh ich we see d iffer en t p o lit ica l a ct o r s a d h er in g t o t h e sa m e d isco u r se. 1.3 Problem definition As a n a t io n t h e Neth er la n d s d ep en d s o n it s r ela t io n s wit h o t h er co u n t r ies t o a ssu r e b o t h d o m est ic a n d fo r e ign so cio -eco n o m ic d evelo p m en t. Hea lt h y in t er n a t io n a l r ela t io n s a r e p a r a m o u n t t o t h e n a t io n s st a b ilit y a n d gr o wt h, b u t st a b le r ela t io n s a r e n o t a given. Th e d y n a m ics o f in t er n a t io n a l r ela t io n s m a k e t h em vu ln er a b le t o d ist u r b a n ces. Th is r esea r ch fo cu ses o n a p a r t icu la r t y p e of p o t en t ia l d ist u r b a n ce: elem e n t s o f xen o p h o b ia in d o m est ic p o lit ica l d eb a t es o n im m igr a t io n. Xen o p h o b ia h a s b een t h e t o p ic o f ea r lier a ca d em ic r esea r ch, a n d a ll a u t h o r s co n cu r t h a t t h e p h en o m en o n is n ega t ive fo r h a r m o n y a n d co h esio n with in co m m u n it ies (see fo r exam p le Cisn er o s ; Do m m er in g ; Flo r es ; Flü ck iger ;). Ad o p t in g t h is p o in t o f view, t h is r esea r ch b u ild s u p o n t h e p r esu m p t io n t h a t t h e o ccu r r en ce o f xen o p h o b ia wit h in p o lit ica l d eb a t es is n ega t ive o n b o t h a d o m est ic level a s a h igh level o f p o la r iza t io n ca n b e d ivisive fo r a st a b le so ciety -, a n d o n a n in t er n a t io n a l level a s t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t e r eflect s t h e in st it u t io n a l p o wer t o co p e wit h d est a b iliza t io n. A co u n t r y t h a t h a s h igh ly p o la r ized d e b a t es in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in wo u ld p r o b a b ly b e a less t r u st wo r t h y p a r t n er o n a n in t er n a t io n a l level. Po la r iza t io n cr ea t es a st a t e o f co n flict b etween gr o u p s in so ciety. Acco r d in g t o Ca r st en d e Dr eu ( ), co n flict s ca n co n t r ib u t e t o lea r n in g ca p a b ilit y, cr ea t ivit y, in n o va t io n, a n d t h e q u a lit y o f 1-9

11 d ecisio n m a k in g, p r o vid ed t h a t t h e co n flict is a im ed a t co n t en t, is m ed iu m in t en se, a n d t h e gr o u p clim a t e is ch a r a ct er ise d b y m u t u a l t r u st, p a r t icip a t io n a n d co o p er a t io n ( ;1 3 2 ). Po la r iza t io n a n n u ls t h ese p r o visio n s a n d ca n a ggr a va t e t en sio n s. Wit h r ega r d t o t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t e, p o la r iza t io n ca n lea d t o t en sio n s b etween p o lit ica l p a r t ies, a n d, ext en d ed t o so ciety, b etween gr o u p s in so ciety. Wh a t t y p e o f d isco u r se p o lit ica l a ct o r s em p lo y is d ecisive fo r t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics o f a d eb a t e. Do m m er in g ( ) ela b o r a t es u p o n t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics o f t h e d eb a t e o n m igr a t io n a n d t h e r esp o n sib ilit ies o f t h e p a r t icip a n t s. He st a t es t h a t t h e d eb a t e o n m igr a t io n is b ein g p o llu t ed a n d p r o p o ses th a t t h e go ver n m en t m igh t a t t em p t t o cr ea t e a gr een b o o k wit h p r o p er d efin it io n s fo r co m m o n t er m s [with in t h e m igr a t io n d eb a t e], a s t er m in o lo gica l p o llu t io n is a n o r igin o f p r eju d ice a n d h o st ilit y (Do m m er in g ; ). Th is co u ld b e p a r t o f a b r o a d er p o licy t o ed u ca t e a ll Du t ch p eo p le (n o t ju st m igr a n t s) in p r o p er d em o cr a t ic cit izen sh ip ( ib id.). Sch in k e l ( ; ) r em a r k s t h a t co n t en t - r ela t ed cr it icism o n ext r em ism is wea k o r la ckin g, in t h e Neth er la n d s (Sch in k el ; in Do m m er in g ), r efer r in g t o t h e co u r se o f th e Fit n a-a ffa ir. He co n clu d es t h a t t h e go ver n m en t wa s m o st ly co n cer n ed wit h d a m a ge co n t r o l o n t h e in t er n a t io n a l st a ge ; a ft er t h e m o vie r elea se, su b st a n t ive d is cu ssio n wa s h eld (ib id.). Th e ca se st u d ies o f t h is r esea r ch ca n b e lo ca t ed t o t h e field o f in t er p la y b etween t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t es o n im m igr a t io n, id eo lo gica l co n t en t o f p o lit ica l d isco u r se, elem en t s o f xen o p h o b ia a n d t h e r esp o n se t o d iscu r sive cr ises. Th is r esea r ch lo o k s in t o t h e o ccu r r en ce o f d iscu r sive cr ises wit h in t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t e; a n d a ssesses wh eth er, a n d if so, h o w p o litica l a ct o r s h a ve r e sp o n d ed t o t h ese cr ises. A p a r t icu la r t y p e o f xen o p h o b ia Isla m o p h o b ia h a s b eco m e co m m o n t o t h e Du t ch p o lit ica l d eb a t e o n im m igr a t io n. St u d ies o n in t egr a t io n h a ve sh ed a ligh t o n t h e issu es su r r o u n d in g 1-10

12 t h e n ega t ive p o r t r a y a l o f Isla m, b o th in p o lit ica l d isco u r se a s in m ed ia. Uit er m a r k a n d Gielen ( ) a r gu e t h a t m ed ia t isa t io n m a y a u gm en t p o wer in eq u a lit ie s b etween go ver n a n ce a ct o r s. Mu ch a ca d em ic r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u ct ed o n t h e t o p ic o f p o lit ica l d eb a t es a n d it s fa cets. Disco u r se a n a ly sis h a s b r o u gh t fo r t h a la r ge b o d y o f lit er a t u r e o n t h e fu n ct io n a n d im p a ct o f la n gu a ge in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in (see Va n Dijk , , a, ; Ha jer & La ws ; Ha jer & Uit er m a r k ; Ha jer & Ver st eeg ; Ha y ; Ho en isch ; Ja co b s ; McKen zie ; Po t t er & Weth er ell , ; St r a u ss ; St r a u ss & Co r b in ; Ta lja 1999). Beca u se o f t h e p o t en t ia l co n seq u en ces o f d iscu r sive cr ises in p o lit ica l d eb a t es, r esea r ch in t o t h e r esp o n se t o cr ises is n ecessa r y. In cr ea sed k n o wled ge o n t h e d y n a m ics o f d iscu r sive cr ises m igh t b e o f u se fo r p o lit ica l a ct o r s t h a t en co u n t er t h em in p o lit ica l d eb a t es. Th e d isp la y o f xen o p h o b ia with in t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t e m a y u lt im a t ely lea d t o d iscr im in a t io n o f gr o u p s o f p eo p le a n d n a t io n a lism, wh ich a r e in d ica t o r s o f fu t u r e co n flict. Th e co u n t r ies o f fo r m er Yu go sla via a n d Rwa n d a b o t h a r e exa m p les o f t h e h o r r en d o u s co n seq u en ces o f n a t io n a lism a n d d iscr im in a t io n t u r n in g vio len t. To in cr ea se o u r k n o wled ge a n d b etter o u r u n d er st a n d in g o f t h e co m p lexit y o f p o lit ics a n d cr ises is t o wo r k o n p r even t in g esca la t io n a n d sa fegu a r d st a b ilit y wit h in so ciety. Resea r ch o n p o t en t ia l sp o ilin g m e ch a n ism s su ch a s p o lit ica l cr ises is b en eficia l b o t h t o scien t ific k n o wled ge o n p o lit ica l d isco u r se, a n d so cieta l so lid it y. 1.4 Aim of research and hypotheses Th e a im o f t h is r esea r ch is t o exa m in e h o w d ist u r b a n ces in t h e in t er n a t io n a l r ela t io n s d iscu r sive cr ises in t h e p u b lic d eb a t e h a ve b een r esp o n d ed t o. Th r ee h y p o th eses a r e b ein g t est ed t o a ssess wh ich t h eo r ies h o ld in t h e p o lit ica l d iscu r sive d o m a in. Th ey a r e 1 ) Ha y s t h eo r y o n t h e d iscu r sive co n st r u ct io n o f cr isis; 2 ) t h e t h eo r y o f Va n Dijk o n id eo lo gy in d isco u r se; a n d 3 ) Ha jer s co n cep t o f 1-11

13 d isco u r se co a lit io n ; o f a n o r ch est r a t ed d iscu r sive p r a ct ice t h a t vo ices a u n ified r e sp o n se. Th is r esear ch a p p lies t h ese t h eo r ies a n d a ssesses wh eth er t h ey h o ld in fu ll o r p a r t ia lly. Main qu estio n (1 ) Ho w d id Du t ch p o lit ical act o rs resp o n d t o d iscu rsiv e crises in t h e Du t ch p o lit ical d eb at e o n im m igrat io n, in t h ree case st u d ies? Hy p o th eses: (2 ) Po lit ician s d iscu rsiv ely co n st ru ct a crisis t o gain su p p o rt fo r t h eir p o lit ical agen d a. (3 ) Id eo lo gy is t h e d riv in g fo rce b eh in d p o lit ical d isco u rse o n im m igrat io n. (4 ) Po lit ician s fo rm allian ces t h at fit t h e n o t io n o f Hajer s d isco u rse d eb at e. co alit io n t o ad v an ce t h eir in t erest in t h e im m igrat io n 1.5 Operationalization To fo r m u la t e a n a n swer t o t h ese q u est io n s, a n a n a ly t ic fr a m ewo r k ser ves t o id en t ify cer t a in in d ica t o r s in t ext a n d sp eech a ct s. Th e u n it o f a n a ly sis is wr it t en a n d sp o k en la n gu a ge wit h in t h e p o lit ica l in st it u t io n a l settin g o f t h e p o litica l d eb a t e. As a fu r t h er d em a r ca t io n, t h r e e ca se st u d ies in r ecen t p o lit ica l h ist o r y h a ve b e e n select ed o n t h e b a sis o f t h eir p e r ceived r ela t io n wit h xen o p h o b ia. Th ey sh a ll b e lo o k ed in t o in ch r o n o lo gica l o r d er, so t h a t a d evelo p m en t o ver t im e m igh t b eco m e a p p a r en t. Th e va r ia b les t h a t sh o w a co r r ela t io n b etween sp eech a ct s a n d xen o p h o b ia, a r e t o b e fo u n d wit h in t h e la n gu a ge t h a t p o lit ica l a ct o r s 1-12

14 em p lo y in t h eir a d d r ess a n d r esp o n se t o fello w p o lit ica l a ct o r s wit h in t h e Du t ch p o lit ica l in st it u t io n a l settin g o f t h e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s. Th is r esea r ch lo o k s in t o th e u se o f d iscu r sive r ep er t o ir e, o r in t er p r eta t ive r e p er t o ir es. Th e ch o ice of cer t a in wo r d s, r h etor ica l t o o ls, d isp la y o f k n o wled ge, u se o f st a t ist ics a n d sen t im en t s a r e t h e m a in va r ia b les t o a n a ly se in o r d er t o id en t ify wh a t r ep er t o ir e a p o lit ica l a ct o r is em p lo y in g. Th e key va r ia b le in t h e a n a ly sis o f d iscu r sive r ep er t o ir es is p o la r iza t io n t o a ssess t o wh a t ext en t a p o lit ica l a ct o r em p lo y s p o la r izin g la n gu a ge is t o lea r n wh eth er h is r ep er t o ir e h a s xen o p h o b ic elem en t s. Th e d a t a sets co n t a in eve r y r eleva n t p o lit ica l d eb a t e wit h in t h e in st it u t io n a l settin g o f t h e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s, o f t h e th r ee p o lit ica l ep iso d es u p t ill t h e p o in t in t im e wh er e a r e n o lo n ger m en t io n ed. Th is wo u ld su ggest t h a t a t o p ic h a s seized t o b e a n issu e fo r t h e m a jo r it y o f p o lit ica l a ct o r s. Th e m et h o d o f r esea r ch is t h e st u d y o f a ca d em ic lit e r a t u r e a n d seco n d a r y so u r ces. Seco n d a r y so u r ces a r e t h e o fficia l t r a n scr ip t s o f p a r lia m en t a r y d eb a t es h eld in t h e Du t ch Ho u se o f Co m m o n s. Fo r so m e o f t h ese d o cu m en t s, t h er e is d a t a a va ila b le in t h e fo r m o f vid eo r eco r d in gs o f t h e live d eb a t es. Ad d it io n a l d o cu m en t s t h a t wer e r efe r r ed t o in t h e p a r lia m en t a r y d o cu m en t s a r e co n sid er ed t o b e p r im a r y so u r ces a s well. Tr a n scr ip t s o f p a r lia m en t a r y d eb a t es a r e t o b e fo u n d o n lin e o n t h e o fficia l go ver n m en t web sit es. Th ese tr a n scr ip t s wer e t h en b u n d led, ca t ego r ized a n d o r d er in ch r o n o lo gica l o r d er. Th e co m p u t er p r o gr a m MAXQDA fo r q u a lit a t ive r e sea r ch is a n a id fo r la b ellin g va r ia b les wit h in d a t a sets it ser ved t o id en t ify a n d ca t ego r ize t h e va r ia b les, a cco r d in g t o t h e co n st a n t co m p a r a t ive m eth o d (gr o u n d ed t h eo r y ). Th is m eth o d m a d e a p p a r en t wh ich p o lit ica l a ct o r s u se t h e sa m e d iscu r sive r e p er t o ir es in wh ich d eb a t es. Disco u r se a n a ly sis is em p lo y ed a ft er t h e id en t ifica t io n o f d iffer en t r ep er t o ir es, in o r d er t o a ssess t h eir id eo lo gica l elem en t s, a ct ivit ies in la n gu a ge su ch a s 1-13

15 co n st r u ct in g a cr isis, o r t h e a p p e a r a n ce o f a d isco u r se co a lit io n. Th ese a n a ly ses la y t h e fo u n d a t io n fo r a n swer in g t h e h y p o t h eses. Th is r esea r ch is d r ive n b y a p o st m o d er n ist a n d p o st st r u ct u r a list a p p r o a ch. Th is sch o o l o f th o u gh t r ests u p o n t h e p r esu m p t io n t h a t t h er e is n o o n e t r u t h o t h er t h a n in t er p r eta t io n. Th e o b ject o f st u d y d isco u r se -, a n d t h e m eth o d o f r esea r ch d isco u r se a n a ly sis en t ir ely d ep en d o n in t er p r eta t io n b y t h e r esea r ch er. Th e r esu lt o f t h e r esea r ch is t h e r esea r ch er s r ea d in g o f h o w d iffer en t d isc o u r ses r ela t e t o ea ch o t h er. Th e p o st st r u ct u r a list a sp ect o f t h is r esea r ch is t h e fa ct t h a t it r e lies o n t h e d eco n st r u ct io n o f la n gu a ge t o y ield r esu lt s. In th is r esea r ch, t h e fo cu s lies o n d iffer en t d isco u r ses t h a t r ela t e t o im m igr a t io n. 1.6 Relevance As m en t io n ed ea r lier, wh a t is d iscu ssed in a p o lit ica l d eb a t e h a s gr ea t in flu en ce o n so ciety. No t o n ly d o es it h a ve a st eer in g effect o n p u b lic o p in io n, b u t a lso p o licies t h a t co m e in t o b ein g m a y d ir ect ly a ffect t h e p o p u la ce o f a co u n t r y. As t h e Neth er la n d s h a s a p a r lia m en t a r y d em o cr a cy, t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in is t o a gr ea t ext en t a r eflect io n o f so ciet y p o lit ica l a ct o r s r ep r esen t p eo p le in so ciety. Th u s, wh a t is b ein g sa id in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in is a m ea su r in g m ech a n ism fo r p u b lic o p in io n. Th e d evelo p m en t o f a d eb a t e in t h e Ho u se o f Co m m o n s m a y b e r ega r d e d a s a r eflect io n o f a d iscu ssio n in t h e p u b lic sp h e r e. An in t er est in g fea t u r e o f t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t e, a n d su b ject o f th is r esea r ch, is t h e wa y t h a t p o lit ica l a ct o r s r ea ct t o d iscu r sive cr ises. Fu r t h er a n a ly sis o f t h ese d eb a t es m a y p r o vid e va lu a b le in fo r m a t io n o n h o w d iscu r sive cr ises a r e h a n d le d wit h in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in. Mu ch h a s b een wr it t en o n h o w a cr isis co m es in t o b ein g t h r o u gh 1-14

16 d iscu r sive p r a ct ice, b u t lit t le r esea r ch h a s b een d o n e in to h o w su ch cr ises a r e su b seq u en t ly a p p r o a ch ed. Th er e a p p ea r s t o b e a t h eo r etica l ga p in a n a ly sis o f p o lit ica l d isco u r se. Th e t h r ee h y p o th eses a ll a d d r ess d iffer en t se gm en t s o f p o lit ica l d isco u r se; t h ey a d d r ess r h et o r ica l t ech n iq u es a n d t h e d y n a m ics o f ga in in g su p p o r t. Bu t a s t h e t h r ee a ll a p p e a r t o h a ve so m e exp la n a t o r y p o wer, a co m b in ed t h eo r y m igh t m o r e a p p r o p r ia t ely co ver a b r o a d er sco p e o f a n a ly sis. Per h a p s su ch a n a m a lga m a t io n m igh t p r o ve t o b e a n a d eq u a t e m o d u s o p er a n d i fo r a n a ly sis o f p o lit ica l d isco u r se. Th is r esea r ch a d d s t o p r evio u s st u d ies o n p o lit ica l d isco u r se in r ela t io n t o t h e d eb a t e o n im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n. As th e Neth er la n d s a s a n a t io n gr ea t ly d ep en d s o n in t er n a t io n a l p a r t n er sh ip s fo r so cio -eco n o m ic st a b ilit y a n d gr o wt h, a st r ict exclu sio n a r y st a n ce o n im m igr a t io n m igh t in t er fer e wit h t h a t a s t h e ca se st u d y o f t h e MEE-la n d er s p la t fo r m in p a r t icu la r h a s sh o wn. As will b e d iscu ssed in ch a p t er 3, t h e Neth er la n d s h a s m a n y exa m p les in r ecen t p o lit ica l h ist o r y t h a t sh o w t h e p r o b lem s o f p o lit ics o f im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n. In gen er a l, t h e Neth er la n d s is ver y st a b le a n d eco n o m ica lly st r o n g. Sin ce th e la st d e ca d e, fa ilin g im m igr a t io n a n d in t egr a t io n h a ve b e en m en t io n ed a s im p ed im en t s t o t h e n a t io n s st r en gt h. Th e p o lit ica l la n gu a ge t h a t is a sso cia t ed wit h t h a t st a n ce is t h e t o p ic o f r esea r ch in t h is th esis. Th is r esea r ch a im s t o p r o vid e m o r e in sigh t in t o t h e co n seq u en ces o f d isco u r se em p lo y m en t in t h e p o lit ica l d o m a in a n d t h e d e velo p m en t s in t h a t field. 1.7 Structure Th e t h esis co n sist s o f n in e ch a p t er s, in clu d in g t h is in t r o d u ct io n. Ch a p t er 2 d iscu sses t h e a ca d em ic lit e r a t u r e t h a t h a s b e en b r o u gh t fo r t h b y p r evio u s st u d ies o n t h is su b ject. Th eo r etica l a r t icles t h a t exp la in co n cep t s t h a t t h is r esea r ch wo r k s with a r e in clu d ed, a s well 1-15

17 a s t h e t h eo r ies t h a t will b e u sed fo r t h e a n a ly sis o f t h e ca se st u d ies. Th e seco n d ch a p ter p r o vid es t h e t h eo r etica l fr a m ewo r k o f t h is r esea r ch. Ch a p t er 3 t h en co m p r ises o f t h e m eth o d o lo gica l p a r t o f t h is t h esis it co n t a in s in fo r m a t io n o n h o w t h e r esea r ch h a s b een co n d u ct ed, wh a t m eth o d s h a ve b een u sed a n d h o w d a t a wa s co llect ed. Th e fo llo win g ch a p t er s a r e t h e ca se st u d ie s t h a t t h is r esea r ch lo o k ed in t o. Ch a p t er 4 d iscu sses t h e h ea d sca r f t a x a n d ch a p t er 5 is t h e ca se st u d y o f t h e No r wa y a t t a ck s d iscu ssio n. Th e 6 th ch a p t er is t h e ca se st u d y o f t h e MEE-la n d er s p la t fo r m a n d in ch a p t er 7 t h e t h r ee ca ses a r e co m p a r e d wit h ea ch o t h er. In t h is ch a p t er, I lo o k in t o th e in clu sio n a r y o r exclu sio n a r y ch a r a cter o f ea ch d isco u r se t h a t h a s b een id en t ified in ch a p t er s 4, 5 a n d 6. Ch a p t er 8 is t h e co n clu sio n in wh ich t h e m a in q u est io n a n d h y p o th eses will b e a d d r esse d. 1-16

18 2. Theoretical Framework In t h is ch a p t er, t h e co n cep t s a r e exp la in ed t h a t a r e r e leva n t fo r t h is r esea r ch. Disco u r se a n a ly sis o f sp eech a ct s in a p o lit ica l settin g r eq u ir es a clo se in sp ect io n o f wh a t is b ein g a n a ly sed, a n d wh a t h a s t o b e lo o k ed fo r. Th e h y p o t h eses a r e fo r m u la t ed in su ch a wa y t h a t t h ey a ssess t h e va lid it y a n d a p p lica b ilit y o f t h e t h eo r ies o f Ha y, Va n Dijk a n d Ha jer. Fir st we lo o k in t o th e d efin it io n o f d isco u r se. We t h en m o ve o n t o d iscu ss t h e t h eo r ies t h a t u n d er lie t h e h y p o th eses. Ha y p r esu m es t h a t p o lit ica l a ct o r s co n st r u ct a cr isis t o ga in su p p o r t fo r t h eir ca u se; Va n Dijk st a t es th a t p o lit ica l d isco u r se is in h er en t ly id eo lo gica l; a n d Ha jer cla im s t h a t p o lit ica l a ct o r s m a y fo r m d isco u r se co a lit io n s in o r d er t o a d va n ce t h eir in t er est s. La t er, we r eview wh y la n gu a ge is r eleva n t u n it o f a n a ly sis, a n d a d d it io n a l t h eo r ies a r e m en t io n ed t h a t in vigo r a t e t h e t h eo r etica l fo u n d a t io n. 2.1 Discourse Disco u r se a n a ly sis is b a ck ed u p b y a va st a m o u n t o f d a t a fr o m p r evio u s st u d ies. Ma n y o f t h ese th eo r ies em p lo y d iffer e n t t er m s b u t in fa ct a r e over la p p in g in t h eir m ea n in g a n d co n cep t s. Fo r in st a n ce, t h e n o u n s (p o lit ica l) d isco u r se ; d iscu r sive r ep e r t o ir e a n d in t er p r eta t ive r ep e r t o ir e a r e t o a la r ge ext en t in t er ch a n gea b le. Th is r esea r ch em p lo y s th e b r o a d d efin it io n o f d isco u r se a s fo r m u la t ed b y Va n Dijk. [Disco u rse ] is a m u lt id im e n sio n al so cial p h e n o m e n o n. It is at t h e sam e t u n e a lin gu ist ic ( ) o b je ct ( ), an act io n ( ), a fo rm o f so cial in t e ract io n ( ), a so cial p ract ice ( ), a m e n t al re p re se n t at io n ( ), an in t e ract io n al o f co m m u n icat iv e e v e n t o r act iv it y ( ), a cu lt u ral p ro d u ct ( ) o r e v en an e co n o m ic co m m o d ity t h at is b e in g so ld an d b o u gh t ( ). (Va n Dijk, :6 7 ) 2-17

19 Va n Dijk em p h a sizes t h e d ifficu lt y o f fo r m u la t in g a n a llen co m p a ssin g d efin it io n o f d isco u r se. Disco u r se a n a ly sis la ck s in scien t ific st r en gt h in t h a t it s d ep en d en ce o n t h e r esea r ch er s in t er p r eta t io n m a kes it su b ject ive a n d b ia sed. Yet d iscu r sive p r a ct ice in essen ce is a su b ject ive p r o d u ct io n in wh ich a n a ct o r a t t a ch es m ea n in g t o a n e ven t. Disco u r se a n a ly sis will ser ve t o a n a ly se t h e co n t en t o f t h e d iffer en t sp eech a ct s a n d t ext s. Th e m eth o d o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis m a k es so m e p r esu m p t io n s with r ega r d t o id en t it y, m in d a n d r ea lit y. Id e n t it y / p e rso n alit y Th e r e is a n a cto r wh o h a s a r a n ge o f d e fin in g fe a t u r es: a p e r so n a lit y, a se lf o r id e n t ity, a n d p o ssib ly a r a n ge o f co m m o n ly a va ila b le r o le s. M in d Wit h in t h e a cto r a r e a va r ie ty o f e n t it ies t h a t a r e b a sic t o t h e e xp la n a t io n o f b e h a vio u r : a t t it u d es, a t t r ib u t io n a l sch e m a t a, ca t e go r y sy stem s, m em o r ie s, so cia l r e p r e se n t a t io n s a n d so o n. ( ) Re ality Th e a ct o r is co n st r u e d a s a ct in g in so m e e n vir o n m e n t, th e wo r ld, t h e sit u a t io n, o r co n text. Th is m a y co n sist o f o th e r p e o p le, so cia l set t in gs, o r va r io u s p h y sica l o b jects a n d e ve n ts. (Po t ter, Ed wa r d s a n d Wet h e r e ll 1993) Th is r esea r ch exa m in es t h e em p lo y m en t o f in ter p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir es b y p o lit icia n s. Th is t er m, wh ich h a s b een co in ed b y Po t t er a n d Weth er ell ( ), en co m p a sses t h e r ela t ively in t er n a lly co n sist en t, b o u n d ed la n gu a ge u n it s wit h in a r a n ge o f a cco u n t s o f t h e sa m e p h en o m en o n (McKen zie, ; 2 ). Wit h in t h e p lu r a l, ver sa t ile field o f p o lit ics, m u lt ip le a ct o r s will d evelo p d iffer en t views o f t h e sa m e even t s a n d co n seq u en t ly will sp ea k in a d if fe r en t m a n n er a b o u t t h em ; t h ese a r e d iffer in g in t er p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir es. Th is r esea r ch m a k es a n a ssessm en t o f t h e Du t ch p o lit ica l clim a t e wit h in a fixed p e r io d o f t im e, b y id en t ify in g a n d a n a ly sin g t h e co n t en t o f in t er p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir e s. To d o so, it d r a ws fr o m p r evio u s st u d ies in t h e field s o f p o lit ica l a n d so cia l scie n ces, cr isis m a n a gem en t, p sy ch o lo gy a n d so cio lin gu ist ics. 2-18

20 Th e lin gu ist ic co n ten t o f a r ep er t o ir e co n sists o f t h e issu es t h a t a r e a d d r essed, t h e a r gu m en t s t h a t a r e p r o p a ga t ed a n d t h e r em a r k s t h a t a r e m a d e in r ela t io n t o t h e su b ject. Ha jer a n d Ver st eeg ( ) h a ve a r gu ed t h a t [wh a t ] p o lit icia n s sa y a b o u t a cr isis ( ) h a ve a d isp r o p o r t io n a t e effect o n t h e p u b lic s p er cep t io n o f t h a t cr isis ; t h u s wo r d s a r e cr u cia l (Ha jer & Ver st eeg ;2 ). Ho wever, n o t o n ly w h at is sa id m a t t er s, w h o sa id it is eq u a lly a s im p o r t a n t. Au t h o r it y p la y s a cr u cia l r o le wit h in t h e field o f p o lit ics. Cr it ica l la n gu a ge st u d y a n a ly ses so cia l in t er a ct io n s in a wa y wh ich fo cu ses u p o n t h eir lin gu ist ic elem en t s, a n d wh ich sets o u t t o sh o w u p t h eir gen er a lly h id d en d eter m in a n t s in t h e sy st em o f so cia l r ela t io n sh ip s, a s well a s h id d e n effect s t h ey m a y h a ve u p o n t h a t sy st em (Fa ir clo u gh, ; 5 ). In t h is r esea r ch, t h e a n a ly sis m u st p r o vid e in sigh t in to t h e d iffer en t id eo lo gica l b a ck gr o u n d s o f p a r t icu la r r ep er t o ir es. Va n Dijk n o t es t h a t it is im p o ssib le t o p r ecisely d efin e t h e d o m a in o f p o lit ics, a s it h a s fu zzy b o u n d a r ies: T h e first o b serv at io n t h at n eed s t o b e m ad e ab o u t p o lit ical d isco u rse is t h at it is n o t a gen re, b u t a class o f gen res d efin ed b y a so cial d o m ain, n am ely t h at o f p o lit ics. ( ) [I] sh all fo r sim p licit y 's sak e assu m e t h at p o lit ical d isco u rse is t h e d isco u rse o f p o lit ician s. ( ) Hav in g t h u s lim it ed t h e ran ge o f p o lit ical d isco u rse t o t h e 'p ro fessio n al' realm o f t h e act iv it ies o f p o lit ician s, t h e n ext o b serv at io n is t h at su ch d isco u rse is b y t h e sam e t o k en a fo rm o f in st it u t io n al d isco u rse. T h at is, o n ly th o se d isco u rses o f p o lit ician s are co n sid ered t h at are p ro d u ced in in st it u t io n al settin gs, su ch as go v ern m en t s, p arliam en t s o r p o lit ical p art ies. ( ) [T h e] d isco u rse m u st b e p ro d u ced b y t h e sp eak er in h er p ro fessio n al ro le o f a p o lit ician an d in an in st it u t io n al settin g. (Va n Dijk, ; 19) Th is d efin it io n o f p o lit ica l d isco u r se in m y view is co n sis ten t wit h 2-19

21 t h e d a t a d em a r ca t io n t o b e b o u n d ed t o t h e p o lit ica l d eb a t es in t h eir in st it u t io n a l settin g, t h u s exclu d in g sp eech a ct s fr o m o t h er fo r a. Ha vin g ela b o r a t ed u p o n t h e d efin it io n o f d isco u r se, we ca n n o w lo o k in t o t h e d iffer en t t h eo r ies t h a t st em fr o m t h e a n a ly sis o f d isco u r se. 2.2 Discursive construction of crisis A k ey co n cep t o f t h is r esea r ch is d iscu r sive cr isis. Th is t er m r efer s t o t h e d iscu r sive co n st r u ct io n o f a cr isis wh ich ca n ( ) b e seen a s a p r o cess in vo lvin g t h e m a p p in g t o geth er o f a gr e a t va r ie t y o f d isp a r a t e even t s u n ified t h r o u gh t h e id en t ifica t io n o f so m e co m m o n essen ce (Ha y, :2 6 6 ). In h is p a p er s o n p o lit ica l d isco u r se Co lin Ha y a r gu es t h a t p o lit ica l a ct o r s m a y u se d iscu r sive a n d t e xt u a l st r a t egies t o co n st r u ct a cr isis. An y given even t m a y b e sp u n a n d t wist ed t o p r o vid e it wit h a sen se o f u r gen cy. A d iscu r sive cr isis co n sists o f gettin g t h e a t t en t io n o f a p u b lic, a le r t in g t h e m a n d m o b ilizin g t h em t o r esp o n d. Th e p r efer r ed r esp o n se will b e t o su p p o r t t h e a ct o r t h a t r ep o r t ed t h e cr isis; t o ch o o se t h a t figu r e t o a ct o n t h eir b eh a lf t o so lve t h e cr isis. Th er e is a m ech a n ism t o t h e d iscu r sive co n st r u ct io n o f a cr isis, a cco r d in g t o Ha y ( :2 6 7 ). Hist o r y is n o n -lin ea r a n d m u lt ip le even t s t a k e p la ce sim u lt a n eo u sly. It is co m m o n fo r t h e h u m a n m in d t o su b co n scio u sly fit even t s in t o fr a m es. Su ch fr a m in g wo r k s a s a r efer en ce p o in t fo r la t er r em em b r a n ce, a n d r e d u ces t h e co m p lexi t y o f ever y d a y life. Discu r sive co n st r u ct io n o f a cr isis u ses a sim ila r fr a m in g m ech a n ism t o a ct iva t e a p a r t icu la r co gn it ive fr a m e in r ela t io n t o cer t a in even t s. Th e sp ecificit y a n d co m p lexit y o f ea ch even t is ( ) d en ied, a s a n a b st r a ct ed a n d sim p lified m eta -n a r r a t ive ca p a b le o f a cco u n t in g fo r ever y sy m p t o m, a n d ca p a b le o f u n a m b igu o u sly a t tr ib u t in g r esp o n sib ilit y, is o ffer ed in it s p la ce (Ha y, :2 6 7 ). Th o se wh o wa n t t o co n st r u ct a cr isis select ively p ick e ven t s t h a t fit t h e cr isis-fr a m in g ; t h is is t h e p r o cess o f p rim ary n arrat io n, 2-20

22 r esu lt in g in t h e co n st r u ct io n o f a ser ies o f in d ep en d en t n a r r a t ives wh ich st ill r eflect ( a lb eit t o va r y in g d e fr ees) t h e sp ecificit y o f ea ch st o r y. Th e d iscu r sive co n st r u ct io n o f cr isis, h o wever, is t h e p r o d u ct o f a p r o cess o f seco n d ary m ed iat io n, a b st r a ct io n a n d m eta - n a r r a t io n (Ha y, :2 6 7 ). Th r o u gh seco n d a r y m ed ia t io n, n o t io n s o f d ir ect r esp o n sib ilit y, ca u sa lit y a n d a gen cy a r e d eleted ( ); [t h e] d ir ect a gen t is su b seq u en t ly r ep la ced b y a n a b st r a ct io n (Ha y, 1996:2 6 7 ). Pr im e e xa m p les a r e t h e p r o b lem a t izin g o f wea r in g a h ea d sca r f, o r lin k in g n u isa n ce o f y o u n gst er s t o eth n icit y o r r eligio n. Disp a r a t e even t s m a y b e p la t ed in a fr a m e o f sy m p t o m s a n d p r o o f o f fa ilin g in t egr a t io n a n d t r o u b leso m e im m igr a t io n. Su ch fr a m in g m a y ser ve a s a t o o l fo r ga in in g p o lit ica l su p p o r t. If m o r e even t s a r e m o u ld ed t o fit t h e cr isis fr a m e, t h en e ven t u a lly a cr isis m a y o ccu r, a s m o r e p eo p le a d o p t it a n d view it a s cr isis. Th e co n st r u ct io n o f a cr isis is t h u s a ver y p o wer fu l m ech a n i sm, fo r it ca n a ct iva t e o r m a n ip u la t e t h e in t er p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir e o f in d ivid u a ls. Th e im p a ct o f su ch fr a m in g is co n sid er a b le, fo r if m en d efin e sit u a t io n s a s r ea l, t h ey a r e r e a l in t h eir co n seq u en ces (Th o m a s a n d Th o m a s, ; p ). Fo r a n issu e t o b e a ck n o wled ged b y m u lt ip le a ct o r s a s a legit im a t e p r o b lem t h a t n eed s a so lu t io n, it n eed s t o b e p o sed a s a p r o b lem. An exa m p le wo u ld b e a p o lit icia n st a t in g t h a t t h e in flu x o f n o n -West er n im m igr a n t s is a p r o b lem, fo r it m a y en d a n ger t h e d o m est ic eco n o m y o n th e lo n g- t er m. Pr o b lem a t iza t io n is n ecessa r y fo r a p o lit icia n ; h is in st r u m en t is la n gu a ge. Th a t is wh y d isco u r se a n a ly sis ser ves t o id en t ify p r o cesses o f p r o b lem a t iza t io n in p o lit ica l sp eech. 2.3 Ideology in discourse Acco r d in g t o so cio lo gist Teu n va n Dijk ( ), [p o lit ics] is o n e o f t h e so cia l d o m a in s wh o se p r a ct ices a r e vir t u a lly exclu sive ly d iscu r sive; p o lit ica l co gn it io n is b y d efin it io n id eo lo gica lly b a sed ; a n d p o lit ica l id eo lo gies a r e la r gely r ep r o d u ced b y d isco u r se (Va n Dijk, ). Mo r eo ver, va n Dijk ( ) st a t es t h a t co n t r o llin g 2-21

23 d isco u r se is a ( ) m a jo r fo r m o f p o wer ; a ll d iscu r sive p r a ct ices a r e a im ed a t p r o d u cin g a n d r ep r o d u cin g p o wer a n d d o m in a n ce (Va n Dijk, ). In a d eb a t e, ver b a l a n d wr it t en t ext u a l exp r essio n s a r e a im ed a t p r o cla im in g o n e s p er so n a l st a n ce o r t h a t o f t h e p o lit ica l p a r t y, o r r efu t in g t h a t o f t h e o p p o n en t. Th e p o lit ica l d e b a t e t h u s is a n in t er a ct ive p r a ct ice in wh ich d o m in a n ce m u st b e exer t ed o ver o t h er s, in o r d er t o sh o w t h e va lid it y o f o n e s st a n d p o in t s. Va n Dijk em p lo y s a m u lt id iscip lin a r y a p p r o a ch ; h e a r gu es t h a t id eo lo gy, d isco u r se a n d p o lit ics a r e clo sely r ela t ed a n d in t er t win ed. Id eo lo gica l d iffer e n ces a r e in d ica t ed t h r o u gh p o la r iza t io n in p o lit ica l d isco u r se, a s Va n Dijk p o sit s t h a t u n d er ly in g p o lit ica l id eo lo gie s a r e t y p ica lly exp r essed in p o lit ica l d isco u r se b y em p h a sizin g Ou r [sic] go o d t h in gs a n d Th eir [sic] b a d t h in gs a n d d e - em p h a sizin g Ou r [sic] b a d t h in gs a n d t h eir go o d t h in gs (Va n Dijk ; ). If Va n Dijk s t h eo r y is va lid, p o lit icia n s u se d iscu r sive t ech n iq u es t h a t exp r ess t h eir id eo lo gica l st a n ce t o ga in su p p o r t a n d d elegit im ize t h e o p p o n en t s views. In sp eech a ct s, p o la r iza t io n m a y b e a m o n g t h ese t ech n iq u es. 2.4 Discourse coalition Ma a r t en Ha jer ( , ) em p lo y ed t h e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a lit io n in h is a r t icles o n ch a n gin g p o lit ica l d isco u r se. Th e m o st b a sic d efin it io n is a gr o u p o f a ct o r s wh o sh a r e a so cia l co n st r u ct (Ha jer ; 4 5 ). In t h is r esea r ch, t h e co n cep t is u sed t o id en t ify t h e in st a n ces wh er e p o lit ica l a ct o r s a ffilia t ed wit h d iffe r en t p a r t ies em p lo y sim ila r r ep er t o ir es. Fr o m a n id eo lo gy -t h eo r etica l p er sp ect ive, a d isco u r se co a lit io n m a y o ccu r in t h e a r e a in wh ich d iffer in g d iscu r sive r ep er t o ir es h a ve id eo lo gica l in t er fa ces. A n ew d isco u r se co a lit io n is lik ely t o b e o r ga n ised a r o u n d a n ew u n it in g p r in cip a l t h a t a p p ea ls t o d iffer en t gr o u p s (Ha jer ;2 5 8 ). Po lit ica l a ct o r s a d o p t in g t h e sa m e a r gu m en t s in d ica t es a t co n sen su s o r a gr eem en t o r a t t h e sh a r ed r en u n cia t io n o f a p o lit ica l o p p o n en t s d isco u r se. If t h e co n cep t o f d isco u r se co a lit io n is va lid, 2-22

24 t h is r esea r ch wo u ld y ield r esea r ch in wh ich we see d iffer en t p o lit ica l a ct o r s a d h er in g t o t h e sa m e d isco u r se. Dir k Ja co b s ( ) st a t es th a t p o licy ch a n ges d o n o t h a ve to b e th e r esu lt o f a gen u in e co m p r o m ise o n th e a r gu m en t a t ive level o r t h e d o m in a n ce o f o n e sp ecific t y p e o f r ea so n in g, b u t ca n ju st a s ea sily b e th e r esu lt o f a n a d h o c d isco u r se co a lit io n. (Ja co b s, ; ) I fo llo w Ja co b s in h is p r esu m p t io n th a t n o sin gle id eo lo gy ( ) co n t r o ls th e d eb a t e, b u t t h a t we a r e ( ) co n fr o n t ed wit h a n o n - go in g st r u ggle b etween d iffer en t id eo lo gies (b o t h a s p o lit ica l n a r r a t ives a n d wo r ld views) wh ich a r e a r t icu la t e d in va r io u s d egr ees in p u b lic st a t em en t s. (Ja co b s, ; ) Th e d evelo p m en t o f t h r ee d eb a t es is a n a ly sed ; ca ses t h a t co m m en ce w it h a d iscu r sive cr isis. 2.5 Power of language Disco u r se a n a ly sis r eviews t h e co n t en t o f a p a r t icu la r in t er p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir e t o d evelo p a b etter u n d er st a n d in g o f it. Ho wever, t Ha r t a r gu es t h a t a n a d d it io n a l in st r u m en t is u sefu l in p o wer -cr it ica l a n a ly sis, wh ich lo o k s b eyon d t h e t ech n ica lit ies a n d o fficia l r h etor ic: t h e r esea r ch o f t h e sy m b o lic d im en sio n s o f o fficia l a ct io n s. An a ly sis o f sy m b o lism exp o ses t h e wa y s in wh ich o fficia l a ct o r s u se p o wer fu l la n gu a ge a n d o t h er sy m b o lic t o o ls t o sh a p e in t er p r eta t io n s o f even t s a n d a ch ieve t h eir en d s. ( t Ha r t :8 5 ). In t h e d isco u r se a n a ly t ica l sect io n o f t h is r esea r ch, in t er p r eta t ive r ep er t o ir es will b e a n a ly sed o n b o th t h eir co n t en t a n d sy m b o lism. Pa r t o f d isco u r se a n a ly sis a im s t o exa m in e t h e sy m b o lica l la y e r, t h e im p licit u lt er io r m o t ives a n d co n seq u en ces o f t h e em p lo y m en t o f a cer t a in la n gu a ge. It d o es so b y d eco n st r u ct in g t h e r ep er t o ir e a n d t r y in g t o la y b a r e it s b a sic p r em ises. Wh en fo r in st a n ce, we co m e a cr o ss t h e fo llo win g fr a gm e n t : It is an eco n o m ic calcu lat io n fo r m an y p eo p le [Mu slim im m igr a n t s] to co m e t o t h e Neth erlan d s. Pen n iless o v er t h ere, w elfare o v er h e re. ( ) Is it t h en st ran ge, t h at we w o n d er h o w m u ch t h at leftist h o b b y 2-23