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1 DECOMPOSING MODERNITY Im ages o f Human E x is te n c e in th e w r itin g s o f E rn e s t B e c k e r B y S te p h e n W illiam M a rtin A TH ESIS in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Masters Degree in Philosophical Foundat in Philosophical Theology a t T h e I n s t it u t e f o r C h ris tia n S tu d ie s A d v is o r: James H. O lth u is D ecem ber, 1992

2 T h is w o rk is n o t to be c o p ie d w ith o u t th e e x p re s s w r itte n p e rm is s io n o f th e a u th o r a n d th e I n s t it u t e f o r C h ris tia n S tu d ie s.

3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In th e a u tu m n a l c h ill o f 1989, E rn e s t B e c k e r was to me n o th in g m ore th a n a name on a lis t o f s u p p le m e n ta l re a d in g s f o r ray s e m in a r in P h ilo s o p h ic a l T h e o lo g y a t th e I n s t it u t e f o r C h ris tia n S tu d ie s. When I ch a n ce d a c ro s s a co p y o f h is T h e D e n ial o f D e a th. I had no id e a th a t I was e m b a rk in g on an a d v e n tu re th a t w o u ld ta k e a lo n g th r e e y e a r s tr u g g le, a g a in s t m any d a n g e rs a n d te m p ta tio n s, to com p le te. I h a v e been fo r tu n a te in th a t I h ave n o t ta k e n th is jo u r n e y in to th e w o rld o f E rn e s t B e c k e r a lo n e. T h e In s t it u t e f o r C h ris tia n S tu d ie s has been my c o m m u n ity f o r th e s e p a s t y e a rs. I w is h to a c k n o w le d g e it, a n d e s p e c ia lly th e fo llo w in g : m y m e n to r, Jim O lth u is ; m y in te r n a l re a d e r, B ria n W alsh; a n d my f r ie n d s a n d fe llo w ju n io r m em bers R ic h a rd M id d le to n, N ik A n s e ll a n d L o r i Y accato. You h a v e h e lp e d me keep m y re s o lv e a n d p re s s ahead. T h a n k s a re a lso d u e to P ro fe s s o r D o n ald E vans o f V ic to ria C o lle g e, U n iv e r s ity o f T o ro n to, w ho so g ra c io u s ly a g re e d to s e rv e as e x te rn a l re a d e r o f th is w o rk. I a ls o w is h to a c k n o w le d g e th e c o m m u n ity o f C h ris tia n s in Cape Tow n, S o u th A fr ic a e s p e c ia lly m y fr ie n d s D iane D a vis a n d L e s le y F o rd re d. Y o u r s tr u g g le to be f a it h f u l w ith in a d eco m p o sing a p a r th e id has in s p ire d th is w o rk a n d h e lp e d me to t h in k i t c o u ld make a d iffe re n c e. I s h o u ld a c k n o w le d g e th e C h ris tia n C o m m u n ity a t 678 E u c iid A ve., ray home. You h ave p u t u p w ith m y m oodiness as I h a v e liv e d B e c k e r s dream b y p ro x y. L a s tly, I w is h to th a n k th e s u p e rv is o rs a t m y w o rk p la c e, L o c k s le y R o b e rts o n, T am ara Rasm ussen a n d Rebecca L o v e rin g. You h ave been g e n e ro us b e y o n d th e c a ll o f d u ty in g r a n tin g me tim e o f f to c o m p le te th is w o rk.

4 T h is w o rk is d e d ic a te d to th e m em ory o f m y fa th e r W illiam M a rtin ( )

5 DECOMPOSING MODERNITY: CONTENTS INTRODUCTION A. THE "FALL" OF MODERNITY...2 B. ERNEST BECKER AND THE DREAM OF ENLIGHTENMENT MAN B e c k e r s Images o f Man Our T h e s is : F a c in g th e D eath o f M o d e rn ity s S e lf Im ages... **5 3. The P la n o f t h is Work: T ra c in g th e C a re er o f Modern S e lf-im a g e s in th e E rn e st B e c k e r s Two V is io n s o f Man C. APPROACHING ERNEST BECKER B e cke r and th e S o c ia l S c ie n c e s B e cke r and T h e o lo g y The D is tin c tiv e n e s s o f Our A pproach D. THE CULTURE OF MODERNITY From D ark Ages to E n lig h te n m e n t T h re e Modern Them es:...13 a ) S e c u la r ity : The banishm ent o f G o d...14 b) N a tu re as sta g e f o r fa u s tia n c o n q u e s t...15 c ) P ro g re s s : A s e c u la r u to p ia...**16 3. No More U to p ia s : The F a ll o f M o d e rn ity...17

6 CHAPTER ONE: HOMO POET A I. INTRODUCTION: FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS AND THE "SCIENCE OF MAN ' I I. AN ONTOLOGY OF STRIVING A. LIF E AND THE LIFE-WORLD The S t r iv in g C h a ra c te r o f " L i f e " The L ife - W o r ld B. ACTION AND INSTINCT P ro g re s s iv e Freedom o f R e a c t iv it y A b s tr a c tio n C. SUMMARY: THE NEED FOR A NEW STAGE IN EVOLUTION...29 I I I. FIRM MEANING: THE GOAL OF HUMAN STRIVING A. MEANING The A chievem ent o f M eaning Meaning and S e lf-e s te e m M eaning and M a s te ry M eaning and C o n tin g e n c y The A lie n a te d Modem C o n scio u sn e ss...35 B. SELF-ESTEEM A n x i e t y The O e d ip a l T r a n s it io n The Gendered D im ensions o f th e O e d ip a l T r a n s it io n C. STAGING THE SELF S o c ia lit y as P ro b le m L e a rn in g th e L in e s : D e fe re n ce and D e m e a n o u r Power, Language and I d e n t i t y The Econom ics o f S e lf-e s te e m Summary and T r a n s it io n to Hom o P o e t a... 44

7 IV. HOMO POETA AS NORMATIVE MODEL OF HUMAN BECOMING...46 A. GOOD ART Al BAD ART The C a te g o ry o f th e A e s th e tic T w is te d P e rs o n s F e tis h is m B. THE CONVERSION TO AUTHENTICITY The Problem o f S tre n g th C r i t i c a l Reason S o c ia l S e lf and Whole O b je c ts The R e a ssert io n o f Autonom y C. a m CRITICISMS OF HOMO POETA P roblem s w ith th e Autonomous S e lf The N o rm a liz a tio n o f B ro k e n n e s s...* The D ia le c t ic s o f Freedom L e a v in g Open th e Q u e s tio n o f God...59 CHAPTER TWO: HOMO HEROICA I. INTRODUCTION: THE BIRTH OF TRAGEDY A. THE CHANGE IN TONE IN BECKER S LATER WORKS B. HOMO H E R O IC A : THE NEW IMAGE OF MAN C. THE UNDERSIDE OF MAN I I. DEVELOPMENTAL AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF HOMO H ER O IC A...75 A. THE UNDERSIDE OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT P rim a ry N a rc is s is m The D e n ia l o f D e a th R e p r e s s io n The Causa S u i P r o je c t

8 B. "IN D IVIDUALITY WITHIN FIN ITU D E ": A SHIFT IN THE STRUCTURE OF BECKER S THEORY The T r a n s itio n fro m Monism to D u a lis m D u a lis m Body and S o u l T w in O n to lo g ic a l M o tiv e s The D ouble B in d o f G u i l t... *...85 C. CONCLUSION: TRAGIC MAN...87 I I I. THE DYNAMICS OF CULTURE...88 A. TRANSFERENCE...89 B. CULTURE AND THE ARMOURED INDIVIDUAL C. THE CULTURAL CAUSA D. PROSPECTS FOR MODERNITY IV. IMPOSSIBLE PARADOX AND THE CLOSURE OF HUMAN PO SSIBILITY A. THE INESCAPABLE NEED FOR ILLUSION C r i t i c i s i n g th e C r i t i c s C re a tiv e I l l u s i o n The L im its o f S c ie n c e D ra w ing th e B a la n ce S h e e t...99 B. COSMIC HEROICS A C re a tio n a l S ta g e A R e lig io u s V is io n (a ) C u ltu re as R e lig io n (b ) R e lig io n as A lt e r n a t iv e to C u ltu r e...104

9 C. PROBLEMS WITH BECKER S VIEW I n d iv i d u a lit y W ith in F in it u d e S cie nce and R e lig io n, o r th e R e lig io n o f S c ie n c e? "R e p re s s io n o f R e a lit y " and " R e la tiv e U n re p re s s io n " B e c k e r s In a c c e s s a b le God CONCLUSION: ERNEST BECKER AND MODERNITY S WORLD WELL LOST A. INSCRIBING THE MODERN CONDITION B. A RESUME N a tu re and th e I r r a t i o n a l Response to E v il: P ro te s t o r A ccepta nce? Abandoned on th e P la n e t C. RETROSPECT: ERNEST ISRAEL BECKER, D. A V IG IL OF ANTICIPATION BIBLIOGRAPHY

10 INTRODUCTION An a u tu m n a l c h ill is in th e a ir ; its s im ila r ity to th e c h ill in o th e r p e rio d s o f c u ltu r a l d e c lin e is u n d e n ia b le. One can p o in t n o t o n ly to v a s t s h ifts in g e o p o litic a l b alan ce s o f p o w e r b u t a lso to th e a p p a re n t d is in te g r a tio n o f o u r re ig n in g id e o lo g ie s (E a st a n d W est a lik e ). I t is e v e n m ore th e se nse... th a t th e in te lle c tu a l a n d s p ir it u a l h e a rt o f th e c u ltu r e, its c o n fid e n c e in scie n ce, te c h n o lo g y a n d an e x p a n d in g in d u s tr ia lis m, has come u pon d if f ic u lt i f n o t s e lf- c o n tr a d ic to r y a nd s e lf d e s tr u c tiv e d a y s, a n d th a t th e c u ltu r e as a w h o le is th u s e n te r in g a "tim e o f tr o u b le s " o f v e r y deep scope. (L a n g d o n G ilk e y )1 T h e h a rv e s t is p a s t, th e sum m er is e n d e d, a n d we a re n o t sa ved. (Je re m ia h 8:20)2

11 A. THE "F A L L " OF MODERNITY I n th e space o f a fe w m o n th s th e w o rld as we w e s te rn e rs kn e w i t came to a n e n d. Those e v e n ts c e n tre d a ro u n d th e a d v e n t season o f 1989 o v e rto o k us w ith a b lin d in g sp e e d. The B e rlin w a il f e ll, th e Ir o n C u rta in lif t e d fro m E a s te rn E u ro p e (e n d in g th e f o r t y y e a r lo n g "c o ld w a r " a n d th e ju s t cause f o r th o s e on th e r ig h t ) a n d Nelson M andela was re le a s e d fro m p ris o n w h ile F.W. de K le rk (w h o se p o w e r em b odie d p e rh a p s th e m ost p o p u la r "c a u s e " on th e le f t ) p ro m is e d re fo rm. The o ld enem ies d is a p p e a re d a n d a "n e w w o rld o r d e r " was in a u g u ra te d. A t le a s t t h a t was th e v ie w fro m W a sh in g to n. I t seem ed f i t t i n g th a t F ra n c is F u k u y a m a had in th e sum m er o f t h a t y e a r p ro c la im e d " th e e n d o f h is t o r y. " The g ra n d d re am o f m o d e rn ity, it s p ro g re s s m y th, seem ed to h a ve b e e n f u lf ille d in th e e v e n ts o f t h a t y e a r. L ik e in th e e n d in g o f a w e s te rn, " th e good g u y s had w o n." B u t th e re was l it t l e o r no c e le b ra tio n. F o r a d e e p e r ma la is e re m a in e d in th e h e a rts, i f n o t th e h eads, o f w e s te rn people. T a ke f o r exam ple th e re c e s s io n th a t th e w o rld p lu n g e d in to s h o r tly a fte r th e s e e v e n ts ; o r ta k e th e e n v iro n m e n ta l d is a s te rs, (m ost n o ta b ly in 1989 t h a t o f th e E x x o n V a ld e z ), w h e re sea a n d s k y a re p o iso n e d to fe e l th e m echanism s o f m o d e rn ity ;3 o r ta k e th e p e tty lit t le w a r s ta r te d u n d e r th e p re te n c e s o f th e "n e w w o rld o r d e r," a w a r w h ic h pom m elled a t h i r d w o rld c o u n tr y f o r th e sa ke o f lib e r a tin g a re p re s s iv e d ic ta to r s h ip ; o r ta k e s im p ly th e f a c t t h a t th e triu m p h o f c a p ita lis m o v e r com m unism h as q u ie tly re p re s s e d th e r e a lity t h a t econom ic in e q u a lity g ro w s in th e fr e e m a rk e t w e st.4 Bob G oudzw a ard u ses th e im age o f "c u m u la tio n a n d f r u s t r a t io n " in d e s c r ib in g th e w ay o u r p ro b le m s a re m o u n tin g

12 on to p o f each o th e r.5 S e n s itiv e c u lt u r a l o b s e rv e rs a re c o n c lu d in g th a t we liv e in a d e c lin in g age. Once th e E n lig h te n m e n t s u n g a s e c u la riz e d v e rs io n o f A m a z in g G ra ce ( " I o nce was lo s t b u t now am fo u n d, t was b lin d b u t now I see. ). Now Douglas Jo h n H a ll uses th e m e ta p h o r o f " n ig h t " to d e s c rib e th e m o d ern sense.6 Once th e E n lig h te n m e n t d e n o te d " th e d a w n in g o f a new d a y." Now L a n g d o n G ilk e y ta lk s a b o u t an "a u tu m n a l c h ill" a nd R o b e rt H e ilb ro n e r a b o u t th e e nd o f "p ro m e th e a n m a n."7 B u t n o t a ll a re n e g a tiv e as th e s e th re e. W a lte r T r u e tt A n d e rs o n, f o r in s ta n c e, ta lk s o f a new "p o s tm o d e rn " c o n s c io u s n e s s a ris in g o u t o f th e fra g m e n te d h o riz o n s o f m o d e rn ity.8 E rn e s t B e c k e r, th e s u b je c t o f th is e ssay, th o u g h t th a t a tim e o f d e a th was also p o te n tia lly a tim e o f r e b ir th ; th a t a tim e o f d e c lin e was a lso p o te n tia lly a tim e o f re n e w a l.9 A n in s ig h t f u l d ia g n o s is o f o u r tim e s lo o k s b e h in d th e h e a d lin e s and u n d e rn e a th th e a p p e a ra n c e s (s y m p to m s ) to a d d re s s th e d r iv in g m o tive s o f a c u ltu r e, it s im p e llin g s p ir it. A t th e same tim e i t is s e n s itiv e to th o s e a r tifa c ts (s y m b o ls, s to rie s, s o n g s ) w h ic h id e n t if y th e c u ltu r e, s in c e th e s p ir it o f a c u ltu r e is a lw a y s in c a rn a te in s u c h th in g s. S uch a re a d in g d a re s, as Bob G oudzw aard sa ys, to h o ld u p a m ir r o r a n d to lo o k o u rs e lv e s f u l l in th e fa c e.10 T h is is a h a rd th in g to do, h o w e v e r, s in c e in q u e s tio n in g o u r t r a d itio n we a lso q u e s tio n o u rs e lv e s. I t is a s ig n o f th e tim e s th a t w h a t D a v id T ra c y has c a lle d th e " p lu r a lit y a n d a m b ig u ity " o f a ll t r a d itio n s 11 is now g r a d u a lly b e in g a c k n o w le d g e d. And it is a s ig n o f th e tim e s th a t o u r t r a d itio n has becom e q u e s tio n a b le. (We s h o u ld n o t m iss th e ir o n y h e re : th e E n lig h te n m e n t was th a t m ovem ent th a t c a lle d in to q u e s tio n a ll " o th e r " tr a d itio n s.) Was th e E n lig h te n m e n t a p tly named as th e com in g o f a ge o f h u m a n ity, o r do we s a y w ith A la s d a ir M a c In ty re th a t i t INTRODUCTION PAGE 3

13 w as a p e rio d o f d e e p e st d a rk n e s s w h e re h u m a n ity a c tu a lly lo s t its w ay? S e lf e x a m in a tio n is th e w a tc h w o rd f o r some. And in m o d e rn ity s d a rk n ig h t o f th e s o u l, its "tim e o f t r ia ls " (as L a n g d o n G ilk e y c a lle d i t in o u r in t r o d u c t o r y q u o te ), th e q u e s tio n a b ility o f th e m o d ern p r o je c t b r in g s "th e g r a v e s t s o rt o f a n x ie ty." i f L e s s lie N e w b ig in is r ig h t in s a y in g th a t " E n lig h te n m e n t" is a c o n v e rs io n w o rd 13 th e n th is a n x ie ty c o n c e rn s o u r d eepest r e lig io u s ro o ts. I t is th e re fo re u r g e n t th a t, a t th e e nd (in b o th th e te m p o ra l a n d e x is te n tia l sense o f " e n d in g " ) o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry, m o d e rn ity c o n fro n t its o w n s e lf im ages. T h is m eans re c a llin g th e hopes w h ic h g a ve b ir t h to th e m o d e rn s p ir it, as w e ll as th e fe a rs w h ic h now c h a ra c te riz e its dem ise. B. ERNEST BECKER AND THE DREAM OF ENLIGHTENM ENT MAN I. B e c k e r s Im ages o f M an 14 In th e w r itin g s o f E rn e s t B e c k e r ( ), th e h ig h s a n d th e lo w s, th e h o p e s a n d th e fe a rs, th e a n tic ip a tio n a n d th e d re a d th a t seem to c h a ra c te riz e th e m o d e rn s p ir it a re p a r tic u la r ly e v id e n t. T h a t is w h y he is th e o b je c t o f th is s tu d y. B e c k e r w ho was d e s c rib e d b y a fo rm e r s tu d e n t as "a man w ho e x e m p lifie d, in b o th h is te a c h in g a n d s c h o la rs h ip, a p a s s io n a te a n d p ro fo u n d co m m itm e n t to h u m a n is t v a lu e s " 15 once s h a re d in th a t E n lig h te n m e n t fa ith th a t saw th e e a r th as a s ta g e f o r th e f u t u r e a p o th e o s is o f h u m a n ity. He c la im e d th a t th is f a ith n eeded to s p re a d in to th e p re s e n t tim e, th a t hum ans n e e d e d to u n c o v e r t h e ir ow n p o te n tia l as a u to nom o u s c re a tu re s. A nd y e t B e c k e r a lso came to see th a t a u to n o m y was an illu s io n, a n d th a t th e c a re e r o f m an on th e p la n e t was in c id e n ta l to th e e a r th.16 B e c k e r o nce id e n tifie d m an as "th e a n im a l th a t h o ld s u p a m ir r o r to INTRODUCTION PAGE 4

14 h im s e lf." 17 When he lo o ke d in to th e m ir r o r, B e c k e r saw tw o im ages re fle c tin g b a c k. He te rm e d th e s e im ages Homo p o e ta and Homo h e ro ic a. The fo rm e r saw m an as a p ro d u c t o f a g ra n d p ro c e s s o f e m e rg e n t e v o lu tio n, th e p in n a c le o f n a tu re s t r iv in g to w a rd fre e d o m. T h is v is io n is c h a ra c te riz e d b y o p tim is m c o n c e rn in g hum an p o s s ib ility. I f m an c o u ld b u t co m p lete th e p ro c e s s o f d e ta c h m e n t fro m in s tin c tiv e b e h a v io u r, fro m fo llo w in g "th e h e r d," fro m th e c o n s tr a in ts o f " c u ltu r e," th e n th e fu lfilm e n t o f th e life p ro c e s s w o u ld be a c h ie v e d. B u t th is im age was to o o p tim is tic. L a te r B e c k e r came to see th a t i t s c re e n e d o u t to o e a s ily th e v ic io u s b e h a v io u r th a t m an was ca pable o f; and th a t m o d e rn m an was in d e e d d o in g. C om ing to te rm s w ith th e d a rk sid e o f m an m eant f o r B e c k e r fo r m u la tin g a new im age. Homo h e ro ic a re fle c ts an o n to lo g ic a l p a ra d o x. L im itle s s h o riz o n s a re now lim ite d b y n a tu re, b y th e b o d y. T h e a tte m p t to fo rm u la te a lim itle s s h o riz o n is done in th e te e th o f n a tu re, a n d is th e o r ig in o f h u m a n ly c re a te d e v il. A u to n o m y is an illu s io n. M an m u s t now a d a p t a n d w a it. W hile d iffe r e n t in th e s e w a ys, b o th th e s e im ages a re a n im a te d b y th e same s p ir it : a m o d e rn s p ir it th a t saw m an as th e open c re a tu re a n d th e e a rth as m e a n in g fu l o n ly in te rm s o f b e in g a "s ta g e " f o r h is e m e rg e n ce. We now tu r n to th e t h r u s t o f th is e ssay. 2. O u r T h e s is : F a c in g th e D eath o f M o d e rn ity s S e lf Im ages E rn e s t B e c k e r s m ost fam ous w o rk, e n title d T h e D e n ia l o f D e a th, c o n te n d e d th a t m an is lo c a te d in th e in te r s tic e s o f p a ra d o x, th a t m an s q u e s t f o r a w o rld as s ta g e f o r tra n s c e n d e n c e in s p ite o f h is lim ita tio n s fo rm s th e basic c o n te x t f o r a ll hum an a c tiv it y. He claim ed th a t d e a th is a com plex sym b o l th a t INTRODUCTION PAGE 5

15 s p e a ks n o t s im p ly o f d ecay in to th e g ra v e, b u t o f th e loss o f c o n tro l o v e r s e lf a n d w o rld. S ince th is is p re c is e ly th e w a y th a t m any m o d e rn people e x p e rie n c e t h e ir w o rld, we s h a ll th e r e fo re e x p lo re th e w o rk o f B e c k e r as a tr a c in g o u t o f th is a w a re n e s s as th a t o f a m o d e rn p e rs o n fa c in g a w o rld w e ll lo s t. We s h a ll e s p e c ia lly ta k e n o te o f th e sense o f hom elessness in th e w o rld d is c lo s e d b y b o th im ages. T hese im ages, a n d t h e ir d e a th, m u st be "o w n e d ", a n d " le t g o " b e fo re n ew ness can be hoped fo r. E rn e s t B e c k e r can h e lp show us th e w a y to new t r u s t a n d hope. 3. The P lan o f th is W ork: T ra c in g th e C a re e r o f M o d e rn S e lf-im a g e s in th e E rn e s t B e c k e r s Two Im ages o f M an T he re m a in d e r o f th is in tr o d u c tio n s h a ll be c o n c e rn e d w ith c o n te x t. T he f ir s t is th e c o n te x t o f B e c k e r s ow n w o rk : How was i t re c e iv e d? T h e second in th is c o n te x t o f th e p re s e n t w o rk : How does i t b u ild u p o n a n d d if f e r fro m o th e r s tu d ie s o f B e c k e r? T he t h ir d c o n c e rn s th e b ro a d e r s o c ie ta l c o n te x t: w h a t a re some o f th e s a lie n t fe a tu re s o f m o d e rn ity re le v a n t to a s tu d y o f B e cke r? T he tw o c h a p te rs s h a ll e xe g e te th e tw o im ages o f m an p re s e n te d b y B e c k e r. C h a p te r one s h a ll b e g in w ith an e x a m in a tio n o f B e c k e r s e a rly o n to lo g y w h e re in th e s t r iv in g life p ro c e s s is seen as o rie n te d to w a rd fre edom, w h ic h m eans fre e d o m fro m e n s la v e m e n t to p re -p ro g ra m m e d in s tin c ts. We s h a ll see how B e c k e r saw m an as th e open c re a tu re, b o u n d le s s in h o riz o n, p o te n tia lly c re a tin g h is ow n w o rld a n d r e - c r e a tin g h im s e lf in re n d e rin g a g re y a n d n e u tr a l w o rld m e a n in g fu l. We s h a ll o b s e rv e how B e c k e r saw c u ltu r e as th e w a y th is p ro c e s s w as com p ro m ise d b y an e n s la v e m e n t to th e w ill o f th e h e rd w h ic h he te rm e d "s y m b o lic r e in s tin c tiv iz a tio n." F in a lly we s h a ll ta k e note o f th e w a y s e lf a n d c u ltu r e c ritic is m o p e n e d th e w a y, f o r him, to a u th e n tic in d iv id u a lit y. INTRODUCTION PAGE 6

16 T h e n e x t c h a p te r s h a ll b e g in w ith B e c k e r s ow n s e lf- c r itic is m o f h is s u p p re s s io n o f th e d a rk s id e o f hum an s tr iv in g. We s h a ll see th e w a y he c h a ra c te ris e d Homo h e ro ic a as w o rk in g a d is tin c tiv e g if t o n to th e w o rld c o n s id e re d no lo n g e r as g re y a nd n e u tra l b u t as v io le n t a n d ir r a tio n a l. The c re a tu re, fo r m e r ly d e fin e d as one w ith lim itle s s h o riz o n s, is now re -d e s c rib e d as r a d ic a lly lim ite d, as f in it e a n d m o rta l, fr a u g h t w ith o n to lo g ic a l p a ra d o xes. We s h a ll see B e c k e r s c r itic is m o f th o s e (in c lu d in g h im s e lf fo r m e rly ) w ho saw hum an n a tu re as tra n s fo rm a b le. I t is in p a ra d o x th a t hum an n a tu re is lo c a te d, a n d w ith o u t p a ra d o x hum an n a tu re w o u ld be im p o s s ib le. We m u s t b alance th e te n s io n s b etw e e n in d iv id u a tio n a n d id e n tific a tio n a n d b e tw e e n n a rc is s is tic s e lfin fla tio n a n d y ie ld in g to o th e rs. T he w ay to do t h is is to re a s s e rt re lig io n. T hese tw o c h a p te rs a re fo llo w e d b y a b r ie f re su m e w h ic h s h a ll exam ine c o n tin u itie s a n d d is c o n tin u itie s w ith in th e s e im ages. B o th im ages, as we s h a ll see, d is p la y th e v ie w t h a t m e a n in g is fo u n d in a u to n o m o u s c o n tro l a n d th a t th e f a ll o f m an c o n s is ts in th e lo ss o f c o n tro l. D is c o n tin u ity is d is p la y e d in th e c o n tra s t b e tw e e n Homo p o e ta w ho loses c o n tro l in a p ro c e s s o f s o c ia liz a tio n (a n d w h o th e r e fo r e can re g a in i t b y o v e rc o m in g s o c ie ty ) a nd Homo h e ro ic a in w hom th e lo ss o f c o n tro l is c o n s titu tiv e to h is b e in g. We s h a ll e n title o u r c o n c lu s io n "A W o rld W ell L o s t" because, o u t o f c o n tro l, m o d e rn m an loses th e w o rld in t r y in g to g a in h im s e lf a n d tr a g ic a lly w in d s u p lo s in g h im s e lf as w e ll. A n d i t fo llo w s th a t m o d e rn m an m u st fa c e h is ow n e n d a n d hope fo r r e s u r r e c tio n. T h e re fo re th is e s s a y co n c lu d e s w ith th e im age o f a re q u ie m v ig il. To r e t u r n to th e m ir r o r im age, B e c k e r has show n us w h a t we a re. O n ly in fa c in g i t can we hope b e y o n d it s dem ise. INTRODUCTION PAGE 7

17 C. APPROACHING ERNEST BECKER 1. B e c k e r and th e Social S ciences B e c k e r was th r o u g h o u t h is c a re e r a m a rg in a l fig u r e in h is ow n a re a o f a ca d e m ic in te r e s t. B e c k e r s w r itin g s, e s p e c ia lly h is e a r lie r ones, re c e iv e d m ix e d re v ie w s in th e w o rld o f academ ic s o cia l s cie n ce. W hile P h ilip B osserm an th o u g h t th a t B e c k e r s w o rk "c o u ld n o t be m ore tim e ly," a n d th a t T he S tr u c tu r e o f E v il "c o u ld v e r y w e ll h a v e been th e b a s ic s o u rc e f o r th e S to ckholm C o n fe re n c e " (in 1969 on "T h e Place o f V alue in a W orld o f F a c t" ),13 o th e rs w e re n o t n e a rly as k in d.19 R o b e rt Ja y L ifto n n o te d in h is re v ie w o f E scape From E v il, th a t B e c k e r h a d a re p u ta tio n o f b e in g, " w ild ly a s s o c ia tiv e, d ra m a tic a lly e x is te n tia l... and le ss th a n s y s te m a tic."20 C o n s e q u e n tly h is id e as h a ve n o t been d e v e lo p e d to a n y la r g e e x te n t. T h e re is no "B e c k e r S chool o f T h o u g h t" to w h ic h we can appeal. T h e re a re no fe s ts c h r ifte n g iv in g v a ria tio n s on h is th e m e s.21 T h e re a re no d is c ip le s c a r r y in g on h is le g a c y.22 I f we w is h to re c o v e r th e s ig n ific a n c e o f B e c k e r f o r to d a y, we s h a ll need to t u r n e ls e w h e re. 2. B e c k e r a n d T h e o lo g y T h e fa c t t h a t h is w r itin g s n e v e r re c e iv e d w id e a c c e p ta n c e in th e so cia l s c ie n c e s n e v e r seem ed to b o th e r B e c k e r. R ig h t b e fo re he d ie d B e c k e r said t h a t h is g re a te s t c o n tr ib u tio n was a c tu a lly in th e d e liv e r in g o v e r o f th e so cia l s c ie n c e s to a m e rg e r w ith th e o lo g y.23 Some th e o lo g ia n s h ave made use o f B e c k e r s w r itin g s. D ouglas Jo hn Hall a n d S a lly K enel, f o r exam ple, use B e c k e r as a d ia lo g u e p a r tn e r f o r d e v e lo p in g " c o n te x tu a l" a n d ' fu n d a m e n ta l" th e o lo g ie s re s p e c tiv e ly. T h e ir w o rk is aim ed a t th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a " r e le v a n t" th e o lo g y w h ic h a p p e a ls to th e "m a in s tre a m " INTRODUCTION PAGE 8

18 a c a d e m y.24 H all f o r exam ple sees m uch p o te n tia l in B e c k e r s id e a o f th e "c re a tiv e illu s io n " as p o in tin g to th e re a p p e a ra n c e o f re lig io n in re la tio n to th e d a rk n e s s o f o u r tim e. B e c k e r s w o rk fo c u s in g on th e d a r k s id e o f hum an e x is te n c e opens u p space f o r a th e o lo g y o f th e c ro s s a s tro n g m o tiv e in H a ll s th e o lo g ic a l p ro g ra m. We h a ve n o t fo u n d H a ll s re a d in g o f B e c k e r to be s a tis fy in g, h o w e v e r. In o u r v ie w he m e re ly b a p tiz e s B e c k e r s p ro b le m a tic v ie w o f th e n a tu re o f t r u t h a n d its re la tio n to re p re s s io n. B e c k e r s cla im th a t we need "c r e a tiv e illu s io n s " is fo u n d e d on th e E n lig h te n m e n t d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n " t r u t h, " r e a lit y, " and "s c ie n c e " on th e one h a n d a n d "m e a n in g, " m y th " a n d " r e lig io n " on th e o th e r. H a ll s w o rk, w h ile in m any w a ys p ro v o c a tiv e, becomes s im p ly a n o th e r e v a n g e liz a tio n o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t. H a ll a n d K e n e l a lso te n d to p ic k a n d choose am ong B e c k e r s w o rk s. T h is is a n o th e r d if f ic u lt y we h a v e w ith t h e ir a p p ro a c h. T h e y te n d, as do m ost o th e r tre a tm e n ts o f B e c k e r, to c o n c e n tra te on T h e D e n ia l o f D e a th. W hile th e ir e x p o s itio n s a re g e n e ro u s, th e y b ra c k e t o f f B e c k e r s e a r lie r w o rk w h ic h in its o p tim is m s e ts u p h is la te r v ie w o f m an as a tr a g ic fig u r e. One e x c e p tio n to th is b ra c k e tin g te n d e n c y m ig h t be F re d e ric k S ontag. In h is c o lle c tio n o f e s s a y s e n title d The R e tu rn o f th e G ods,25 S ontag does fo cu s h is a tte n tio n o n B e c k e r s e a r lie r w o rk. H o w e ve r we h ave been d is a p p o in te d b y th is w o rk. S o n ta g sees no d e v e lo p m e n t in B e c k e r, a tta c k in g him as a s ta tic e n t it y, m a k in g no d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n h is e a r lie r a n d h is la te r w o rk. Sontag w a n ts to re c o v e r th e o lo g y a n d m e ta p h y s ic s as c la s s ic a l d is c ip lin e s w h ic h we h a v e " lo s t " and need to re g a in. B u t S ontag is s im p ly w ro n g w h e n he claim s th a t B e c k e r tr ie s, u n s u c c e s s fu lly, to do a w a y w ith th e gods. " P r o v in g " his INTRODUCTION PAGE 9

19 p o in t th a t we need to g e t b a c k to "o ld fa s h io n e d th e o lo g y " in v o lv e s m a k in g B e c k e r a sca p e g o a t. O th e r th e o lo g ia n s h ave tre a te d B e c k e r s c o n c e p ts to a c a re fu l s c r u tin y, c h ie fly c o n c e rn in g th e w a y B e c k e r uses te rm s lik e " f in it u d e " and "tra n s c e n d e n c e " to illu m in a te hum an e x is te n c e. U n fo rtu n a te ly, B e c k e r s s y n th e tic s ty le a n d u n d e r ly in g in te g r a tiv e in te n tio n s m ake s u c h an a p p ro a c h d if f ic u l t. He h im s e lf a d m itte d th a t he s a c rific e d th e o re tic a l p re c is io n f o r th e s a k e o f c o m m u n ic a tin g his u rg e n t m essage.27 In d e e d B e c k e r has been c ritic is e d f o r th is loose use o f c o n c e p ts.28 H o w e v e r w h e n one re c o g n iz e s B e c k e r as t r y in g to accom m odate an e n tir e tr a d itio n, th a t o f E n lig h te n m e n t s o c ia l scie n ce, a n d to in te g ra te i t in to a fra m e w o rk th a t re v e a ls w h a t he th o u g h t was it s tra n s fo rm in g p o w e r, we can u n d e rs ta n d w h y h is te rm s a re so o fte n a m o rp h o u s.29 I f " th e hum an s c ie n c e s " h a v e re v e a le d w h a t a n d w h o we re a lly a re, th e n th e c o n tr ib u tio n s o f each s c ie n c e 30 a re v a lid to th is la r g e r u n d e rs ta n d in g. L ik e s ta in e d g la ss, each c o lo u rs in it s o w n w a y th e lig h t th a t s h in e s on th e hum an c o n d itio n fro m th e E n lig h te n m e n t. I t is "th e la r g e r u n d e rs ta n d in g " th a t we a re in te re s te d in. W hat does B e c k e r see w h e n he lo o ks a t hum an a c t iv it y th r o u g h th e hum an s c ie n c e s? 3. T h e D is tin c tiv e n e s s o f O u r A p p ro a c h A lth o u g h we s h a ll in th e c o u rs e o f th is th e s is d is c u s s some o f th e s p e c ific c a te g o rie s th a t B e c k e r uses in h is a n a ly s is, i t is im p o rta n t to re s ta te th a t we a re n o t a f t e r a sim p le e v a lu a tio n o f th e c o n c e p tu a l co h e re n c e o f h is fo r m u la tio n s. N o r a re we in te re s te d, as K enel is, in d e v e lo p in g a fo rm a l th e o lo g ic a l m e th o d in in te r a c tio n w ith B e c k e r. N o r do we w is h, as H all does, INTRODUCTION PAGE 10

20 to c u t o u t c e rta in "g o o d id e a s " fro m B e c k e r s c o rp u s a s o rt o f te x tu a l a u to p s y. We a re in te re s te d in v is io n. M o d e rn v is io n. We w a n t to lo o k, w ith B e c k e r, in to th e m ir r o r im ages o f m o d e rn ity. O u r g u id in g a s s u m p tio n s h a ll be t h a t w h a t someone sees, e s p e c ia lly a s e n s itiv e o b s e rv e r lik e B e c k e r, is re la te d to a fu n d a m e n ta l v is io n o f h um anness. T h is v is io n is d y n a m ic, n o t s ta tic. I t is fo rm u la te d c o n tin u a lly in in te r a c tio n w ith th e n e w s p a p e rs, jo u r n a l a rtic le s, re la tio n s h ip s a n d s e tb a c k s th a t make u p o n e s life in c u ltu r e. T h is fu n d a m e n ta l v is io n th e n, w h ic h we h ave a lre a d y id e n tifie d in B e c k e r as b e in g b o th o p tim is tic a n d tr a g ic, is th e fo c u s o f th is e ssay. F u n d a m e n ta l v is io n s a re n o t s im p ly a e s th e tic in c h a ra c te r, h o w e v e r. T he q u a lifie r "fu n d a m e n ta l" means th a t s u c h v is io n s c o n c e rn th e v e r y g ro u n d o f o n e s e x is te n c e, an a c c o u n tin g f o r e v il a n d hope f o r re d e m p tio n. T h a t is, th e y a re fa ith - v is io n s in v o lv in g fu n d a m e n ta l t r u s t. T he la n g u a g e o f " t r u s t " is th e la n g u a g e o f th e o lo g y. T h e re fo re we say t h a t th is e s s a y is th e o lo g ic a l. B u t fa ith - v is io n s a re a ls o com m unal. T h e y a re, as we in d ic a te d a b o ve, in c a rn a te d in th e c u lt u r a l lif e o f a people. Hence th e p a r tic u la r k in d o f s tu d y we a re u n d e r ta k in g o u r a n g le o f a p p ro a c h to B e c k e r m ay be s ta te d as th e o lo g y o f c u ltu r e.21 S ince th is is s p e c ific a lly a th e o lo g y o f m o d e rn c u ltu r e, we m u s t ta k e one m ore s te p b e fo re e n c o u n te rin g E rn e s t B e c k e r. B e fo re we p ro ceed to h is tw o d if fe r e n t p ic tu r e s, i t w ill h e lp u s to "fra m e " th e m b y ta k in g n ote o f some o f th e s a lie n t fe a tu re s o f m o d e rn ity re le v a n t to th is s tu d y.32 INTRO DUCTION PAGE 11

21 D. THE C U LTU R E OF MODERNITY 1. F ro m D a rk Ages to E n lig h te n m e n t T h e use o f th e te rm "m o d e rn " la n d s us in a d if f ic u lt y o f d e fin itio n. "M o d e rn " is co m m o n ly u sed in th e sense o f th e "d e v e lo p e d " t h ir d o f th e w o rld (eg. "m o d e rn " v s. " p re -m o d e rn " s o c ie tie s ). "M o d e rn " is a lso u sed as th e c u m u la tio n o f th e h is to r ic a l p ro c e s s, as th e h ig h e s t " le v e l" o f c iv iliz a tio n (eg. " m o d e rn iz a tio n "). Som etim es m o d e rn s im p ly means "c o n te m p o ra ry " (as in "m o d e rn m u s ic "). In th e p s y c h e s o f "m o d e rn " people, th e re is a s h a re d c o n v ic tio n th a t th e o n e - th ir d o f th e w o rld d o m in a te d b y E u ro p e a n males is th e h ig h e s t c u ltu r a l re a liz a tio n o f hum an d o m in io n o v e r n a tu re.33 G e n e ra lly s p e a k in g, th is " c u ltu r e o f m o d e r n ity " is sa id to h a ve been b ir th e d in th e d e c lin e o f th e m id d le ages. W hile m o d e rn p e o p le sp e a k o f th is p re d e c e s s o r p e rio d as "th e D a rk A g e s " (and h ence th e "E n lig h te n m e n t" as it s s u c c e s s o r), i t is im p o rta n t (a n d ir o n ic ) to n o te th a t th e g ro p in g f o r m e a nin g is a fe a tu re o f m o d e rn ity. W hy th is is so w ill becom e a p p a re n t below. N e v e rth e le s s, "m o d e rn " u s u a lly means "a d v a n c e d." P a rt o f w h a t c o n s titu te d "a d v a n c e m e n t" f o r B e c k e r was th e m o d e rn m an s s e lf a w a reness o f th e c o n tin g e n t, c o n s tru c te d n a tu re o f a ll s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e s.34 " In th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f h is to r y, i t seems in e v ita b le th a t man s h o u ld h ave ended u p b y s e e in g th r o u g h h im s e lf, as i t w e re."35 T h e m e ta p h o r o f "s e e in g th r o u g h " is te llin g. P e rh a p s th e te rm th a t d e fin e s th e m o d e rn age b e s t is " c r itic is m." T he E n lig h te n m e n t, so B e c k e r th o u g h t, r e le n tle s s ly s u b je c te d a ll hum an phenom ena to c ritic is m. No lo n g e r a c c e p tin g a n y p a r tic u la r s o c ia l system, ty p e o f g o v e rn m e n t o r w a y o f c o n s tr u c tin g th e w o rld as " th e tr u e o n e," m o d e rn s lik e B e c k e r v ie w m an as, INTRODUCTION PAGE 12

22 m ore th a n a n y th in g else, a " w o r ld - m a k e r " r a th e r th a n s im p ly a "w o rld d w e lle r." P e rh a p s even m ore ra d ic a lly, h o w e v e r, was th e id e a c o rre la tiv e w ith th e c r itic is m o f m y th s o f tim e le ss s o c ia l o rd e r : th a t m an c o u ld a lso be a w o rld "u n -m a k e r." T he a b ility to ta k e n o te o f th e w ay s o c ie tie s w e re s tr u c tu r e d g iv e s m o d e rn m an w h a t he th in k s to be an a b ilit y to s ta n d o u ts id e th e h is to ric a l p ro c e s s a n d to s u rv e y i t as "le a d in g u p to " h is e m e rg ence. In d e e d K a n t s c a ll to m o d ern people to "d a re to k n o w " (fro m h is fam ous essay "W hat is E n lig h te n m e n t? ")36 im p lie d th a t, to th a t p o in t, p eople had n o t "d a re d to k n o w " b u t r a th e r had ta k e n th e easy w a y o u t b y b e lie v in g s u p e rs titio n s. The d iffe re n c e betw e e n th e E n lig h te n m e n t a n d th e p re -E n lig h te n m e n t p e rs o n was n o t o f d e g re e b u t o f k in d. T he E n lig h te n m e n t is, f o r m o d e rn s, a w a te rs h e d. I t fu n c tio n s in a w ay s im ila r to th e E xodus in J u d a is m a n d th e C ru c ifix io n in C h r is tia n ity. In d e e d we h a v e been c o n tin u a lly a s s a u lte d in o u r re a d in g o f B e c k e r s w o rk s w ith s ta te m e n ts lik e "to d a y we k n o w." "T h e s e c re t is o u t!" sa ys B e c k e r th e E n lig h te n m e n t man. T he c o r r e la tiv e im p lic a tio n, a t le a s t in B e c k e r s e a r lie r w o rk s, is th a t "n o w th a t we kn o w we can m a n ip u la te a b e tte r w o rld." And a b e tte r w o rld means a b e tte r m a n. 2. T h re e M o d e rn Them es B ria n W alsh a n d R ic h a rd M id d le to n c h a ra c te riz e m o d e rn ity as th a t v e n tu re,...s tr e tc h in g fro m th e R enaissance th r o u g h th e E n lig h te n m e n t to th e p re s e n t d a y, to c o n tro l n a tu re b y means o f ra tio n a l a n d te c h n ic a l in s ig h t a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l p o w e r f o r hum an p r im a r ily econom ic b e n e fit. T h is p r o je c t o f c o n tro l a n d p ro g re s s, w h ic h is b a s ic to w e s te rn s o c ie ty, is ro o te d in a u to n o m y th e s e c u la r m y th th a t hum an b e in g s a re su p re m e in th e w o rld, th a t we a re th e s e lf n orm e d m a s te rs o f o u r ow n d e s tin y, a n d o f th e d e s tin y o f th e w o rld.37 INTRO DUCTION PAGE 13

23 T h re e m o tifs o f th e m o d ern s p ir it a re p re s e n t in th is d e fin itio n. F ir s t, m o d e rn ity is ro o te d in a "s e c u la r m y th " w h ic h d is p la c e s God in fa v o u r o f m an. Second, th e t h r u s t o f m o d e rn ity is " c o n tr o l o f n a tu re," w h ic h im p lie s a c e rta in v is io n o f th e w ay hum ans a n d non hum ans in te r a c t, as w e ll as a v ie w o f th e re la tio n b e tw e e n b o d y a n d s e lf. T h ird, th e outcom e o f hum an a c tiv it y is seen in " p r o g r e s s," th e id e a th a t th e E n lig h te n m e n t in a u g u ra te s a s e c u la riz e d u to p ia w h e re " s o rr o w a nd m o u rn in g s h a ll fle e a w a y " th r o u g h hum an ra tio n a l a n d te c h n ic a l a c tiv it y. A nd th is " u to p ia " is w h e re th e c o u rs e o f th e w o rld is h e a d in g w ith m an as c a p ta in. Each o f th e s e is re p lic a te d in B e c k e r s w r itin g s. We now exam ine th e m in t u r n. a ) S e c u la r ity : T h e b a n is h m e n t o f God B y s e c u la r, we do n o t mean " a th e is tic." B e rn a rd Z y ls tra is r ig h t w hen he sa ys th a t " i t is n o t n e c e s s a ry to be an a th e is t to be an a g e n t o f th e s p ir it o f m o d e r n ity. 38 I t is p o s s ib le, e ven a c c e p ta b le, f o r m o d e rn s to b e lie v e in God. H o w e v e r s e c u la r ity does mean a c e rta in k in d o f God becomes n e c e s s a ry to p o s it, i f a God is to be p o s ite d a t a ll. T h a t is, a God th a t a llo w s, e ven e n c o u ra g e s th e p r o je c t o f hum an a u to n o m y. B y s e c u la r ity we u n d e rs ta n d th e lo ss o f a God a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d in th e a ff a ir s o f th e w o rld. B e c k e r saw th is as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e ris e o f th e c r it ic a l hum an scie n c e s w h ic h re p la c e d th e tr a d itio n a l ro le o f C h r is tia n ity in d e fin in g th e w o rld, a c c o u n tin g f o r e v il a n d e s ta b lis h in g n o rm s. b u rd e n o f b o th T h e S tr u c tu r e o f E v il a n d Be vo n d A lie n a tio n. T h is is th e A nd y e t n e ith e r o f th e s e w o rk s m ake th e c la im th a t m o d e rn p e o p le s h o u ld no lo n g e r b e lie v e in God. I f God m ay s t ill be a ffirm e d as " e x is te n t" in some w a y, th e v e r y p a r tic u la r re v e la tio n o f God in th e w o rld claim ed b y a n y re lig io u s tr a d itio n is INTRODUCTION PAGE 14

24 e ith e r done a w a y w ith o r g e n e ra liz e d to th e p o in t w h e re i t becom es d e v o id o f re le v a n c e to s h a re d, p u b lic life. M o d e rn s w ho cla im to be b e lie v e rs in God a re s u b je c t to a p e c u lia r s p lit betw e e n v a lu e a n d fa c t, b e tw e e n p riv a te a n d p u b lic w o rld s, b e tw e e n m e a nin g a n d t r u t h, b etw e e n p a r t ic u la r it y a n d u n iv e r s a lity.39 B e lie f in God m ay be a c c e p ta b le as a p riv a te o p tio n f o r m e a n in g, b u t no p a r tic u la r God can be a c c e p te d as u n iv e rs a l n o rm f o r p r iv a te life. One "c h o o s e s o n e s p riv a te God, ju s t as one chooses o n e s "v a lu e s y s te m." B u t th is s u p p o s e d re le g a tio n o f re lig io n does n o t mean a lo ss o f re v e la tio n p e r se. R a th e r th e lo cu s o f re v e la tio n is c h a n g e d to th e s p h e re o f h um an ra tio n a l a c tiv it y, e s p e c ia lly th e a c tiv it y o f scie n ce. In th e m o d ern w o rld, s c ie n c e becomes th e le g itim a tin g b a r o f t r u t h. F o r a m o d ern to c a ll s o m e th in g " s c ie n tific " is ju s t a n o th e r w a y o f s a y in g th a t i t is " u n d is p u ta b ly t r u e. " b ) N a tu re a s s ta g e f o r fa u s tia n c o n q u e s t C o in c id e n t w ith th is is a second fe a tu re : th e r e v e la to r y n a tu re o f c re a tio n is lo s t a n d th e pla ce o f hum ans in th e w o rld becom es a m a tte r o f "m a k in g space" r a t h e r th a n fin d in g o r a c c e p tin g. N a tu re is o p p o se d to m an s u c h th a t it m u st be "ta m e d " f o r h is b e n e fit; a n d m an is s e t o v e r a g a in s t n a tu re. M eaning is no lo n g e r seen as a c c e p tin g o n e s place in th e w o rld as a g if t. N a tu re has m e a n in g in a s m u c h as h u m a n ity c o n tro ls i t th r o u g h th e e x e rc is e o f ra tio n a l p o w e rs. T h is is a s tro n g them e in B e c k e r s 1968 w o rk T h e S tr u c tu r e o f E v il. S e c u la rity a n d th e s e ttin g o f hum an a u to n o m o u s fre e d o m o v e r a g a in s t a n a tu re s tr ip p e d o f s ig n ific a n c e c o n n e c t in a v ie w o f th e w o rld as "th e a re n a o f m an s F a u s tia n c o n q u e s t."40 B u t we a re s t ill le f t w ith th e s tra n g e te rm "h u m a n n a tu r e." F o r we a re, u n lik e th e lo w e r a n im a ls, fre e a n d y e t lik e them we a re "e m b o d ie d. B e c k e r u n d e rs to o d th is p ro b le m w hen he claim ed th a t INTRODUCTION PAGE 15

25 hum ans lo o k u p a n d see th e s ta rs b e c k o n in g. B u t th e y also look d ow n a nd see a b o d y w h ic h n e v e r seems to w a n t to do w h a t th e y w a n t i t to, and th e y lo o k a h e a d a nd see d e a th a n d d e cay as fa te.41 C a rry in g f o r t h th e them e o f th e s e ttin g o f a u to n o m y o v e r a g a in s t n a tu re m eans th a t hum an n a tu re m u st be d e fin e d as m a lle a ble a n d o pen. W hile we ''h a v e " b o d ie s, we a lone can g iv e s ig n ific a n c e to th e m.42 re -m a k in g, an a ttr ib u t io n (o r im p o s itio n ) o f "m e a n in g." T h is s ig n ific a n c e is a P u ttin g th in g s in th is w a y h o w e v e r o n ly u n d e rs c o re s f o r m o d ern m an w h a t he has lo s t. c ) P ro g re s s : A s e c u la r u to p ia T he t h ir d fe a tu re is th e s u p p o s e d o u tw o rk in g o f c o n tro l: p ro g re s s. P ro g re s s is th e id e a th a t as hum ans g a in m ore a n d m ore c o n tr o l o v e r n a tu re (and th e m s e lv e s ), th e y move c lo s e r a n d c lo s e r to th e d a y w h e n n a tu re -and th e lim its o f th e b o d y a re tam ed a n d u to p ia is a s s u re d.43 As Z y ls tra p u ts it, M a n s c r e a tu r e ly fin itu d e is e q u a te d w ith h is s in f u l p re d ic a m e n t, fro m w h ic h he m u s t b e lib e ra te d th r o u g h s e lf-re d e m p tio n... in o r d e r to re g a in p a ra d is e lo s t." 44 H is to ry is a s ta g in g o f hum an a p o th e o s is. B e c k e r b e lie v e d th a t a s c ie n c e o f m an w h e re in th e open a n d becom ing n a tu re o f m an was re v e a le d was a k e y f o r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f p ro g re s s. A lth o u g h th is m ay seem to be a lre a d y a r e la tiv iz a tio n o f th e id e a o f in e v ita b le p ro g re s s as a la w o f h is to r y, i t is, h o w e v e r, co m b in e d w ith a s tro n g fa ith in th e s u p p o s e d h um an a b ilit y to im p ro v e it s e lf th r o u g h s e lf a w a re n e ss, to o v e rc o m e h is to r ic a l e v il th r o u g h u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d to b r in g in a new w o rld w h e re th e hum an s p ir it w o u ld be th e o b je c t o f w o rs h ip. INTRODUCTION PAGE 16

26 3. No M ore U to p ia s Bob G o u d zw a a rd claim s th a t it is th is p ro g re s s m y th th a t em bodies th e dilem m as o f m o d e rn ity.45 F o r w h a t once seemed lik e an in e v ita b le p u s h to w a rd s e c u la r u to p ia has now become a d e c lin e to w a rd d e s tru c tio n. W ith n e g a tiv e p ro g re s s comes lo ss o f a u to n o m y, o f c o n tr o l a n d o f a v is io n o f "o p e n " hum an n a tu re. M o re o v e r th e w o rld seems h o s tile, n o t am enable to hum an a c tiv it y. T he a c c o m p a n y in g sense o f d is o rd e r m akes us a lte rn a te betw e e n "e s c a p is t" b e lie f in a God th a t c o u ld c a re less a b o u t th e w o rld (as in fu n d a m e n ta lis m ) o r a n ih ilis t ic re n u n c ia tio n o f b e lie f in God, in h u m a n ity, in a n y th in g. H a v in g ta k e n n o te o f some fe a tu re s o f m o d e rn ity, we a re now re a d y to make o u r a p p ro a c h to th e im ages o f m an p u t fo r t h b y th a t m odern man, E rn e s t B e c k e r. INTRO DUCTION PAGE 17

27 NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION! S o c ie ty a n d th e S a cre d. (New Y o rk : C ro s s ro a d, 1981), p. x i. 2. H o ly B ib le, R e vise d S ta n d a rd V e rs io n. (D iv is io n o f C h ris tia n E d u c a tio n o f th e N a tio n a l C o u n c il o f C h u rc h e s o f C h ris t in A m e rica, 1952). 3. D is a s te rs had so m ounted b y th e sum m er o f 1989 th a t e n v iro n m e n ta lis t D a vid S u z u k i in d e s p e ra tio n claim ed th a t th e w o rld had te n y e a rs to re p e n t o f its e n v iro n m e n ta l s in s b e fo re th e dam age to th e e a r th w as ir r e v e r s ib le. ("A P re v ie w," A P la n e t f o r th e T a k in g, p ro d u c e d b y D a n ie l Z u k e rm a n, Q T o ro n to : CBC, 1989.) 4. See Jack C a h ill, "D a rk V ic to r y : C a p ita lism K.O. s Com m unism b u t n o t E v e ry o n e is C h e e rin g," T o ro n to S ta r. S u n d a y, D ecem ber 17, 1989, p. B - l, 4. H e re s a sam ple q u o te : "T h e c a p ita lis t econom ies a re p ro d u c in g n a tio n s o f fin a n c ie r s w ho liv e in m ansions a n d h a m b u rg e r f lip p e r s w ho c a n t a ffo r d an a p a rtm e n t." ib id, p. B - l. 5. C a p ita lis m a n d P ro g re s s. T ra n s la te d b y J o s in a Van N uis Z y ls tra, (T o ro n to a n d G ra n d R a p id s: Wedge a n d E erdm ans, 1979) p. x iv. 6. See D ouglas J o h n H all, T h in k in g th e F a ith. (M in n e a p o lis : A u g s b u rg, 1989). 7. G ilk e y, S o c ie ty a n d th e S a c re d. (New Y o rk : C ro s s ro a d, 1981), p. x i and R o b e rt H e ilb ro n e r, An I n q u ir y in to th e Human P ro s p e c t. U p d a te d a n d re c o n s id e re d f o r th e 1980 s, (New Y o rk : N o rto n, 1980), p See W a lte r T r u e tt A n d e rs o n, R e a lity Is n t W hat i t U sed to Be. (San F ra n c is c o : H a rp e r-c o llin s, 1990). 9. "T h e Second G re a t S tep in Hum an E v o lu tio n," T he C h ris tia n C e n tu ry, J a n u a ry 31, 1968, p p G o u d z w a a rd is a D u tch C h ris tia n e c o n o m is t-p h ilo s o p h e r. In h is C a p italism a n d P ro g re s s, he claim s th a t n o t o n ly a re we in th e w e s t c o n fro n te d w ith a c lu s t e r o f p ro b le m s, b u t t r a d itio n a l w ays o f s o lv in g th e m a re im p o te n t a nd lead to e v e n f u r t h e r p ro b le m s. T h e o n ly w a y th r o u g h is to lo o k d e e p ly in to th e r o o ts o f w e s te rn s o c ie ty a n d to d is c e rn th e im p e llin g s p ir it d r iv in g it. His a n a ly s is o f th e econom ic s tr u c tu r e o f th e w e s t o p e n s u p in to a n a m in g o f th a t s p ir it in c a rn a te in th e s t r u c t u r e o f c a p ita lis m as " p r o g r e s s." T h is d e m y th o lo g iz a tio n c a lls th o s e v e r y ro o ts in to q u e s tio n, a n d th u s fo llo w s th e m ir r o r im age. 11- P lu r a lit y a n d A m b ig u ity. (San F ra n c is c o : H a rp e r a n d Row: 1987), p T h e p h ra s e " th e g ra v e s t s o rt o f a n x ie ty " is C liffo r d G e e rtz. W hile it r e fe r s to th e p re c a rio u s n e s s o f a ll c u ltu r a l c o n s tru c ts, i t is p a r tic u la r ly

28 a p p ro p ria te as a re a d in g o f th e p re s e n t c r is is in m o d e rn c u ltu r e. In c id e n tly, th e c o n te x t fro m w h ic h th is p h ra s e is ta k e n a c tu a lly echoes m uch o f w h a t we s h a ll h e a r B e c k e r sa y: Man d e p e n d s u p o n s y m b o ls a n d s y m b o l syste m s w ith a d e p e ndence so g re a t th a t as to be d e c is iv e f o r h is c re a tu ra l v ia b ilit y a n d, as a r e s u lt, h is s e n s itiv ity to e v e n th e re m o te s t in d ic a tio n th a t th e y may p ro v e u n a b le to cope w ith one o r a n o th e r a s p e c t o f e x p e rie n c e ra is e s w ith in him th e g ra v e s t k in d o f a n x ie ty... ("R e lig io n as a C u ltu ra l S y s te m," in T h e In te r p r e ta tio n o f C u ltu re s, (New Y o rk : B asic B ooks, 1973), p. 99.) In a c h a p te r e n title d " M o d e rn ity in D e c lin e " in h is L a n e d o n G ilk e v : T h e o lo g ia n f o r a C u ltu re in D e c lin e, (L a nham, MD: U n iv e r s ity P re ss o f A m erica, 1991) B ria n W alsh g iv e s a lita n y o f c ita tio n s d e s c rib in g th e p re s e n t c ris is in m o d e rn ity. T h e re a d e r w ho is in te r e s te d in p u r s u in g f u r t h e r in d ic tm e n ts o f m o d e rn ity s h o u ld t u r n th e re. 13. F o o lis h n e s s to th e G re e k s. (G ra n d R a p id s: E erdm ans, 1986), p B e c k e r w ro te b e fo re th e ju s t m ovem ent to in c lu s iv iz e la n g u a g e. I have s tr u g g le d w ith B e c k e r s s e x is t la n g u a g e a n d h a ve d e c id e d th a t th e re a re th re e th in g s to " d o " w ith it. ( I sp e a k w ith re fe re n c e to m y d is c u s s io n s o f B e c k e r s id e a s ). T h e f i r s t w o u ld be to in c lu s iv iz e b y u s in g g e n e ra l a n d non s p e c ific te rm s s u c h as " t h e y " o r "h u m a n " o r " t h e ir " (in p la ce o f "h e," "m a n s " and " h is " re s p e c tiv e ly ). I h a v e re je c te d th is o p tio n s in c e i t m akes la n g u a g e to o c lu m sy. T h e seco n d o p tio n w o u ld be to a lte r n a te m a scu lin e a n d fe m in in e p ro n o u n s w h ile u s in g th e in c lu s iv e te rm "h u m a n ". T h is m akes e x p re s s io n e a s ie r b u t c re a te s a n o th e r p ro b le m. B e c k e r u s u a lly g iv e s th e im p re s s io n th a t he is ta lk in g a b o u t "m a n " as " a ll hum an c r e a tu r e s." B u t th e re a re m om ents in h is d is c u s s io n w h e re he s w itc h e s to a d is c u s s io n o f women a s i f th e y w e re e ith e r a n e x c e p tio n, o r a s p e c ia l case. (See T he S tr u c tu r e o f E v il. (New Y o rk : G eorge B ra z ille r, 1968), p p a n d D e n ia l o f D e a th. (New Y o rk : F re e P re s s, 1973), p p , 170.) To a lte r n a te g e n d e r p ro n o u n s in m y d is c u s s io n, th e n, w o u ld become c o n fu s in g. T h e t h ir d o p tio n th e one I v e d e c id e d to ta k e r is k s a lie n a tin g th e re a d e r b u t seems th e m ost f a it h f u l to B e c k e r. T h is o p tio n is to re ta in B e c k e r s s e x is t la n g u a g e in ray d is c u s s io n o f h is id e a s, to s ta te th a t he is ta lk in g a b o u t a p a r tic u la r c o n s tr u c t (a lth o u g h he th o u g h t i t u n iv e rs a l) called "m a n." W hen I use an id e a o r c o n s tru c t o f m y o w n, I s h a ll s w itc h to more in c lu s iv e la n g u a g e. 15. H a ro ld Ja cobs, " E rn e s t B e c k e r: A R e c o n s id e ra tio n," H u m a n ity a n d S o cie ty 5 (1981), p S p e a k in g on b e h a lf o f o th e r s tu d e n ts w h o owed a d e b t to B e c k e r, Jacobs goes on to s a y th a t, B y s h o w in g u s how d e e p ly o u r ro o ts w e re e m bedded in a b r illia n t and h u m a n is tic a lly - o rie n te d h is to r ic a l t r a d itio n, he p ro fo u n d ly b o ls te re d a n d s h a rp e n e d o u r v is io n, p r e v io u s ly s u p p o rte d o n ly b y o u r m o ra l in t u itio n, o f a s o c ia l s c ie n c e c o m m itte d to m a xim iz in g hum an s e lfp re s e r v a tio n a n d th e u n fo ld in g o f hum an p o te n tia l, (p. 241) 16. R e a d in g B e c k e r s d e a th b e d in te r v ie w w ith Sam Keen le d H a ro ld Jacobs to re m a rk : T h e B e c k e r o f th e e a r lie r y e a rs is a lm o st u n re c o g n iz a b le. The E n lig h te n m e n t v is io n is d w a rfe d b y an a ll- p e r v a s iv e sense o f d e s p a ir. INTRO DUCTION PAGE 19