fiziks Institute for NET/JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE in PHYSICAL SCIENCES

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1 Content-Electronics & Experimental Methods 1. Semiconductor Physics..(1-32) 1.1 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators 1.2 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors 1.3 Electrons and Holes Effective Mass 1.4 Intrinsic Material 1.5 Extrinsic Material 1.6 The Fermi Level Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium 1.7 Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentrations 1.8 Compensation and Space Charge Neutrality 1.9 Current Components in Semiconductor Drift current (Conductivity and Mobility) Diffusion Current Einstein Relationship Total Current in a Semiconductor 1.10 Effects of Temperature and Doping on Mobility 1.11 The Potential Variation within a Graded Semiconductor An Open-Circuited Step-graded Junction Summary 2. P-N Junction Diode..(33-83) 2.1 Semiconductor Diode No Applied Bias Reverse Bias Condition Forward Bias Condition Ideal Diode Diode Characteristics Diode Equation i

2 2.1.7 Breakdown Diodes The Temperature Dependence of the V-I Characteristics 2.2 Diode Resistances DC or Static Resistance AC or Dynamic Resistance 2.3 Diode Capacitances Space-Charge or Transition Capacitance Diffusion Capacitance 2.4 Load Line Analysis 2.5 Series Diode Configurations with DC Inputs 2.6 Parallel and Series Parallel Configurations 2.7 Rectifiers Half-Wave Rectification Full Wave Rectification (i) Bridge Network (ii)center-tapped transformer 2.8 Clippers Series Clippers (Positive and Negative) Parallel Clippers (Positive and Negative) Summary 2.9 Clampers Summary 2.10 Zener Diode Case-I and fixed V R ) i Case-II fixed V and variable R Case-III fixed R and variable V Zener as a Reference Levels i L L L i ii

3 3. Bipolar Junction Transistors....(84-116) 3.1 Transistor Construction 3.2 Transistor Operation 3.3 Transistor Configurations Common Base Configuration Common Emitter Configuration Common Collector Configuration 3.4 DC Biasing-BJTs Introduction Operating Point 3.5 Fixed -Bias Circuit Q-point Transistor Saturation Load-Line Analysis 3.6 Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit Q-point Saturation Level Load-Line Analysis 3.7 Voltage-Divider Bias Q-point Transistor Saturation Load-Line Analysis 3.8 DC Bias with Voltage Feedback Q-point Saturation Conditions Load-Line Analysis iii

4 4. Operational Amplifier....( ) 4.1 Characteristics of an Op-Amp Input Offset Voltage Input Offset Current Input Bias Current Differential Input Resistance Common-mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio Large-signal Voltage Gain Output Voltage Swing Output Resistance Transient Response Slew Rate Gain-Bandwidth Product The Ideal Op-Amp Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve 4.2 Open-Loop Op-Amp Configurations The Differential Amplifier The inverting Amplifier The Non-inverting Amplifier 4.3 An Op-Amp with Negative Feedback Block Diagram Representation of Feedback Configurations 4.4 Voltage-Series Feedback Amplifier Negative Feedback Closed-Loop Voltage Gain Difference Input Voltage Ideally Zero Input Resistance with Feedback Output Resistance with Feedback iv

5 4.4.6 Bandwidth with Feedback Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback Voltage Follower 4.5 Voltage-Shunt Feedback Amplifier Closed-Loop Voltage Gain Inverting Input Terminal at Virtual Ground Input Resistance with Feedback Output Resistance with Feedback Bandwidth with Feedback Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback Current-to-Voltage Converter 4.6 Differential Amplifiers Differential Amplifier with One Op-Amp Differential Amplifier with Two Op-Amps 4.7 The Practical Op-Amp 4.8 Summing, Scaling and Averaging Amplifier Inverting Configuration Non-inverting Configuration Differential Configuration 4.9 The Integrator 4.10 The Differentiator 4.11 Active Filters First-Order Low-Pass Filter Second-Order Low-Pass Filter First-Order High-Pass Filter Second-Order High-Pass Filter Band-Pass Filter All-Pass Filter v

6 4.12 Oscillators Oscillator Principles Phase Shift Oscillator Wein Bridge Oscillator Square Wave Generator 4.13 Basic Comparator Zero-Crossing Detector Schmitt Trigger Voltage Limiters 5. Digital Electronics....( ) 5.1 Number System Decimal Number System Binary Number System Octal Number System Hexadecimal Number System 5.2 Logic Gates The Inverter The AND Gate The OR Gate The NAND Gate The NOR Gate OR Gate (Positive Logic and Negative Logic) AND Gate (Positive Logic and Negative Logic) 5.3 Logic Expressions NOT AND OR NAND NOR vi

7 5.4 Rules for Boolean algebra 5.5 Boolean Expressions for Gate Networks Sum-of-Product Form Product-of-Sums Form 5.6 Simplification of Boolean Expressions Boolean algebra techniques The Karnaugh Map 5.7 Universal Gates The Universal Property of the NAND Gate The Universal Property of the NOR Gate 5.8 Latches The S-R Latch The Gated S-R Latch The Gated D Latch 5.9 Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops The Edge-Triggered S-R Flip-Flop The Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop The Edge-Triggered J-K Flip-Flop Asynchronous Inputs 5.10 Pulse-Triggered Flip-Flops (Master-Slave) The pulse-triggered (Master-Slave) S-R Flip-Flop The Pulse-Triggered (Master-Slave) D Flip-Flop Pulse-Triggered (Master-Slave) J-K Flip-Flop 5.11 Basic Flip-Flop Applications Parallel Data Storage Data Transfer Frequency Division Counting Summary vii

8 5.12 Asynchronous Counters A Three-Bit Asynchronous Binary Counter Asynchronous Decade Counters 5.13 Synchronous Counters Three-Bit Synchronous Binary Counter A four-bit synchronous binary counter and timing diagram 5.14 Shift Register Functions Serial In-Serial out Shift Registers Serial In-Parallel out Shift Registers Parallel In-Serial out Shift Registers Parallel In- Parallel out Shift Registers 5.15 Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion Digital and Analog Signals Binary-weighted Input D/A converter R/2R ladder D/A converter D/A performance characteristics 5.16 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion Simultaneous A/D converter 6. Experimental Methods....( ) 6.1 Error Analysis 6.2 Data Interpretation and Analysis 6.3 Error Propagation 6.4 Statistical Model The Binomial Distribution The Poisson Distribution The Gaussian Distribution viii

9 6.5 Nuclear Detector Gaseous Ionization Detectors Ionization Chamber Proportional Counter G.M. counters Scintillation Counter Semiconductor Detector 6.6 Energy Spectrum and Pulse Height Distribution 6.7 Temperature Sensor 6.8 Pressure Sensor 6.9 Vibration Sensor Practice Set... ( ) ix