Scanning Probe Microscopes
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1 SPIE Milestone Series Volume MS 107 Selected Papers on Scanning Probe Microscopes Design and Applications Yves Martin, Editor IBM TJ. Watson Research Center Brian J. Thompson General Editor, SPIE Milestone Series SPIE OPTICAL ENGINEERING PRESS A Publication of SPIE The International Society for Optical Engineering Bellingham, Washington USA
2 Selected Papers on Scanning Probe Microscopes Design and Applications Contents xiii Section One Background and Operating 3 Principles и Introduction Yves Martin Description ofstmandafm Scanning tunneling G. Binnig, H. Rohrer (Helvetica PhysicaActa 1982) Atomic force microscope G. Binnig, C.F. Quate, Ch. Gerber (Physical Review Letters 1986) Scanned-probe microscopes H.K. Wickramasinghe (Scientific American 1989) The Topografiner: an instrument for measuring surface microtopography R. Young, J. Ward, F. Scire (Review of Scientific Instruments 1972) The scanning tunneling microscope G. Binnig, H. Rohrer (Scientific American 1985) Scanning tunneling G. Binnig, H. Rohrer (IBM Journal of Research and Development 1986) Atomic resolution with atomic force microscope G. Binnig, C. Gerber, E. Stoll, T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate (Europhysics Letters 1987) Specifying surface quality: a method based on accurate measurement and comparison E.J. Abbott, F.A. Firestone (Mechanical Engineering 1933) Tip-Sample Interactions in STM and AFM 67 Scanning tunneling : a chemical perspective C.J. Chen (Scanning Microscopy 1993) Vll
3 Tip surface interactions in STM and AFM J.B. Pethica, W.C. Oliver (Physica Scripta 1987) Forces in atomic force in air and water A.L. Weisenhorn, P.K. Hansma, T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate (Applied Physics Letters 1989) Atomic force : general principles and a new implementation G.M. McClelland, R. Erlandsson, S. Chiang (in. Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation 1987) Atomic force microscope force mapping and profiling on a sub 100-Ä scale Y. Martin, C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Journal of Applied Physics 1987) Interfacial forces J. Israelachvili (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1992) Force sensing in scanning tunneling : observation of adhesion forces on clean metal surfaces U. Diirig, O. Züger, D.W. Pohl (Journal of Microscopy 1988) Section Two Key Components of the Instrument Tips for STM or AFM 123 Elektrolytische Ätzung von Kathodenspitzen für das Feldelektronenmikroskop [Electro-etching of cathode tips for field-electron microscopes] F.W. Niemeck, D. Ruppin (Zeitschrift für angewandte Physik 1954) 126 Mono-atomic tips for scanning tunneling H.-W. Fink (IBM Journal of Research and Development 1986) 132 In situ fabrication and regeneration of microtips for scanning tunnelling T.B. Vu (Journal of Microscopy 1988) 137 Simple ion milling preparation of (111) tungsten tips D.K. Biegelsen, F. A. Ponce, J.C. Tramontana (Applied Physics Letters 1989) 140 New scanning tunneling tip for measuring surface topography Y. Akama, E. Nishimura, A. Sakai, H. Murakami (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) 145 Atomic resolution with the atomic force microscope on conductors and nonconductors T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1988) 149 Micromachined silicon sensors for scanning force O. Wolter, Th. Bayer, J. Greschner (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology В 1991) Scanners and Mechanics 154 Some design criteria in scanning tunneling D.W. Pohl (IBM Journal of Research and Development 1986) 165 Single-tube three-dimensional scanner for scanning tunneling G. Binnig, D.P.E. Smith (Review of Scientific Instruments 1986) 167 Piezodriven 50-/tm range stage with subnanometer resolution F.E. Scire, E.C. Teague (Review of Scientific Instruments 1978) 173 Microfabrication of integrated scanning tunneling microscope T.R. Albrecht, S. Akamine, M.J. Zdeblick, C.F. Quate (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) viii
4 175 Miniature-size scanning tunneling microscope with integrated 2-axes heterodyne interferometer and light microscope A. Stemmer, A. Engel, R. Häring, R. Reichelt, U. Aebi (Ultra 1988) 186 Nanopositioning and control P. Atherton (Electro Optics 1988) 188 An easily operable scanning tunneling microscope K. Besocke (Surface Science 1987) 195 The National Institute of Standards and Technology molecular measuring machine project: metrology and precision engineering design E.C. Teague (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology В 1989) Motion Sensors for AFM Tips 200 Novel optical approach to atomic force G. Meyer, N.M. Amer (Applied Physics Letters 1988) 203 A differential interferometer for force C. Schönenberger, S.F. Alvarado (Review of Scientific Instruments 1989) 207 Improved fiber-optic interferometer for atomic force D. Rugar, H.J. Mamin, P. Guethner (Applied Physics Letters 1989) 210 Compact scanning-force microscope using a laser diode D. Sarid, D. lams, V. Weissenberger, LS. Bell (Optics Letters 1988) 213 Atomic resolution with an atomic force microscope using piezoresistive detection M. Tortonese, R.C. Barrett, C.F. Quate (Applied Physics Letters 1993) Section Three Main Applications of STM and AFM Atomic Scale Imaging by STM and AFM 219 7x7 reconstruction on Si(lll) resolved in real space G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, E. Weibel (Physical Review Letters 1983) 223 Real-space determination of surface structure by scanning tunneling R.M. Feenstra, J.A. Stroscio (Physica Scripta 1987) 229 Epitaxial growth of silicon on Si(001) by scanning tunneling R.J. Hamers, U.K. Köhler, J.E. Demuth (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) 235 Real-time observation of oxygen and hydrogen adsorption on silicon surfaces by scanning tunneling H. Tokumoto, K. Miki, H. Murakami, H. Bando, M. Ono, K. Kajimura (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) 239 Atomic-scale contrast mechanism in atomic force H. Heinzelmann, E. Meyer, D. Brodbeck, G. Overney, H.-J. Güntherodt (Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed Matter 1992) Surface Inspection and Metrology on the Nanometer Scale 245 Imaging crystals, polymers, and processes in water with the atomic force microscope B. Drake, C.B. Prater, A.L. Weisenhorn, S.A.C. Gould, T.R. Albrecht, C.F. Quate, D.S. Cannell, H.G. Hansma, P.K. Hansma (Science 1989) 249 Scanning tunneling of surface microstructure on rough surfaces J.K. Gimzewski, A. Humbert (IBM Journal of Research and Development 1986) ix
5 255 Imaging polished sapphire with atomic force R.C. Barrett, C.F. Quate (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) 258 Problems of roughness measurements using STM R. Hiesgen, D. Meissner (Ultra 1992) 267 Atomic-scale friction of a tungsten tip on a graphite surface CM. Mate, G.M. McClelland, R. Erlandsson, S. Chiang (Physical Review Letters 1987) 271 Linewidth measurement by a new scanning tunneling microscope H. Yamada, T. Fujii, K. Nakayama (Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 1989) 274 Measurement of sidewall roughness by scanning tunneling microscope A. Sato, Y. Tsukamoto, M. Baba, S. Matsui (Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 1991) 278 Two-dimensional atomic force microprobe trench metrology system D. Nyyssonen, L. Landstein, E. Coombs (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology В 1991) 283 Method for imaging sidewalls by atomic force Y. Martin, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Applied Physics Letters 1994) Mapping Magnetic and Electric Fields by AFM or STM 286 Magnetic force a short review Y. Martin, D.W. Abraham, P.C.D. Hobbs, H.K. Wickramasinghe (in Magnetic Materials, Processes, and Devices 1989) 294 Magnetic force : general principles and application to longitudinal recording media D. Rugar, H.J. Mamin, P. Guethner, S.E. Lambert, J.E. Stern, I. McFadyen, T. Yogi (Journal of Applied Physics 1990) 309 Understanding magnetic force C. Schonenberger, S.F. Alvarado (Zeitschrift für Physik B Condensed Matter 1990) 320 High-resolution capacitance measurement and potentiometry by force Y. Martin, D.W. Abraham, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Applied Physics Letters 1988) 323 Extremely low-noise potentiometry with a scanning tunneling microscope J.P. Pelz, R.H. Koch (Review of Scientific Instruments 1989) 328 Observation of single charge carriers by force С Schonenberger, S.F. Alvarado (Physical Review Letters 1990) 331 Lateral dopant profiling on a 100 nm scale by scanning capacitance C.C. Williams, J. Slinkman, W.P. Hough, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1990) Section Four Advanced Research Applications Spectroscopy of Clean Surfaces by STM 337 Surface electronic structure of Si(lll)-(7x7) resolved in real space R.J. Hamers, R.M. Tromp, J.E. Demuth (Physical Review Letters 1986) 341 Structure of the H-saturated Si(100) surface J.J. Boland (Physical Review Letters 1990) 345 STM spectroscopy of vortex cores and the flux lattice F. Hess, R.B. Robinson, J.V. Waszczak (PhysicaB 1991) X
6 355 Probing hot-carrier transport and elastic scattering using ballistic-electronemission A.M. Milliken, S.J. Manion, W.J. Kaiser, L.D. Bell, M.H. Hecht (Physical Review В 1992) Scanned Tip and Light: Optical Interactions on the Nanometer Scale 359 Scanning near-field optical (SNOM) D.W. Pohl, U.Ch. Fischer, U.T. Dürig (Journal of Microscopy 1988) 366 Near-field optics:, spectroscopy, and surface modification beyond the diffraction limit E. Betzig, J.K. Trautman (Science 1992) 373 Near-field differential scanning optical microscope with atomic force regulation R. Toledo-Crow, P.C. Yang, Y. Chen, M. Vaez-Iravani (Applied Physics Letters 1992) 376 Photon emission in scanning tunneling : interpretation of photon maps of metallic systems R. Berndt, J.K. Gimzewski (Physical Review В 1993) 385 Use of a scanning tunneling microscope to rectify optical frequencies and measure an operational tunneling time A.A. Lucas, P.H. Cutler, Т.Е. Feuchtwang, T.T. Tsong, Т.Е. Sullivan, Y. Yuk, H. Nguyen, P.J. Silverman (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A 1988) 390 Optical interactions in the junction of a scanning tunneling microscope Y. Kuk, R.S. Becker, P.J. Silverman, G.P. Kochanski (Physical Review Letters 1990) Thermal Measurements and Spectroscopy with a Scanned Tip 394 Thermal and photothermal imaging on a sub 100 nanometer scale C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe (in Scanning Microscopy Technologies and Applications 1988) 400 Optical absorption and spectroscopy with nanometre resolution J.M.R. Weaver, L.M. Walpita, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Nature 1989) 403 Scanning chemical potential microscope: a new technique for atomic scale surface investigation C.C. Williams, H.K. Wickramasinghe (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology В 1991) Material Analysis with an AFM 407 Using force modulation to image surface elasticities with the atomic force microscope P. Maivald, H.J. Butt, S.A.C. Gould, C.B. Prater, B. Drake, J.A. Gurley, V.B. Elings, P.K. Hansma (Nanotechnology 1991) 411 First images from a magnetic resonance force microscope O. Züger, D. Rugar (Applied Physics Letters 1993) Processing Surfaces Down to the Atomic Scale 414 Surface modification with the scanning tunneling microscope D.W. Abraham, H.J. Mamin, E. Ganz, J. Clarke (IBM Journal of Research and Development 1986) xi
7 421 Direct deposition of 10-nm metallic features with the scanning tunneling microscope M.A. McCord, D.P. Kern, Т.Н.P. Chang (Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology В 1988) 425 Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope D.M. Eigler, E.K. Schweizer (Nature 1990) 427 Atomic emission from a gold scanning-tunneling-microscope tip H.J. Mamin, P.H. Guethner, D. Rugar (Physical Review Letters 1990) 431 Probing the chemistry and manipulating surfaces at the atomic scale with the STM Ph. Avouris, I.-W. Lyo (Applied Surface Science 1992) 442 Scanning electrochemical. High-resolution deposition and etching of metals O.E. Hüsser, D.H. Craston, A.J. Bard (Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1989) Growing Applications in Biology and Organic Chemistry 450 In situ investigations of single living cells infected by viruses W. Häberle, J.K.H. Hörber, F. Ohnesorge, D.P.E. Smith, G. Binnig (Ultra 1992) 457 Structure of the extracellular surface of the gap junction by atomic force J.H. Hoh, G.E. Sosinsky, J.-P. Revel, P.K. Hansma (Biophysical Journal 1993) 473 Author Index 475 Subject Index xii
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