Earthquakes! photo credit: USGS!
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1 Earthquakes! photo credit: USGS!
2 Today in earthquake history! M7.4 in Turkey, 1944! 2,790 killed! 50,000 houses destroyed! horizontal offset of 3.5 m! vertical offset of 1 m! together with earthquakes over a 4 year period, "ruptured > 800 km of fault length!
3 What is an earthquake?! result of sudden energy release that produces "seismic waves: p and s! (fault rupture, volcanic eruptions, landslides, nuclear bombs, etc.)! body waves surface waves also produced (Love and Rayleigh)! --these are the most destructive due to their motion--
4 Wave propagation and particle motion from:
5 earthquakes occur along faults! relatively recently (~20,000 years ago)! today (1993)! and in the past (~100,000,000 years ago)!
6 What happens along the fault?!
7 Different types of faults exist! San Andreas fault! vertical displacement! horizontal displacement!
8 How are location & size of earthquakes determined?! seismometers! (modern around only 100 years) Zhang Heng 132 AD
9 vertical component seismometer!
10 horizontal component seismometer!
11 sample seismogram! P, S, L, R are arrivals of P, S, Love and Rayleigh waves! from same earthquake! amplitudes correlate with magnitude of earthquake! time between first arrivals of different waves gives distance to hypocenter! "(P, S, L, R travel at different velocities through the Earth)!
12 We know about past events from historical records Lisbon earthquake (1755)
13 Italy, 1557
14 Estimate magnitude from! historical records, too 1886 Charleston, SC earthquake!
15 New Madrid: winter !
16 relationship of Mercalli Intensity to Richter magnitude! (not the same as moment magnitude, but general idea)!!!!
17 effects of earthquakes! ground displacement! liquefaction/landslides! tsunamis! fires!
18 pancaked building Mexico City! Earthquakes don t kill people - buildings do!!
19 ground rupture, 1906 Olema, CA!
20 surface displacement Alaska!
21 deformed fence - Gallatin County, MT!
22 buckled concrete San Fernando, CA!
23 soil liquefaction! shaking disturbs clay particles in soil and they collapse! " like a house of cards! behavior of clay particles! model of building in soil! from:
24 soil liquefaction! 1964 Nigata, Japan 1989 Loma Prieta, California
25 tsumani generation!
26 vertical motion displaces! water above it!
27 Tsunami-generating EQs and sources! Geist, Titov and Synolakis, Tsunami: Wave of Change, Scientific American, January, 2006.!
28 Japan 2011 tsunami!
29 Japan 2011 tsunami!
30 Why do earthquakes occur where they do?! plate tectonics tells us why...! (the tested scientific framework on which we rely)!
31 Earth s outer layer is composed of plates that move relative to each other!
32 lots of earthquakes in plate boundary zones! note ring of fire
33 ! plates are thin, rigid (lithosphere)...! plates float on asthenosphere! "! mechanically weak,! hot plastic (flows slowly)! crackers vs. honey! dissipation of heat! from depth! causes convection! --motion of plates--!
34 Rigid plates only deform at their boundaries (3 types)! the 3 main types of faults correlate to the boundaries! convergent-reverse; divergent-normal; transform-strike-slip!
35 Lithosphere created as new seafloor! at divergent boundaries!
36 Divergent boundary: Iceland From:
37 Lithosphere consumed! at convergent boundaries! (subduction zones)!
38 Earthquake distribution in subduction zones! northern Japan! from:
39 northeast Pacific: Juan de Fuca; Pacific; North American plates! from:
40 Lithosphere neither created nor consumed! at transform boundaries!
41 ! transform boundary! SAN ANDREAS FAULT! (NORTH AMERICA-PACIFIC)! yellow dots are earthquakes!
42 Bathymetry & topography also! correlate with plate boundaries!
43
44 Current USGS Probabilistic Hazard Maps for Coterminous US updated in 2008! Next update due in 2014!
45 Haiti: boundary of Caribbean and N. American plates! motion between CAR and NOAM is slow!
46 Enriquillo fault! strike-slip faults are near vertical! vertical faults cut straight lines across land surface!
47 Shake map (Modified Mercalli Scale)! velocities in X + exceed 116 cm/s; accelerations > 124 % g! Perceived Shaking Extreme Violent Severe Very Strong Strong Moderate Light Weak Not Felt
48
49 fault behavior and earthquakes! " " if we understand, can we predict?! imagine the following:! block wrapped! with sandpaper! spring! string! pulley! as string is tightened around pulley, spring lengthens,! "but block does not move ( stick phase)! when spring finally reaches its maximum extension,! "block moves ( slip phase--earthquake)!
50 laboratory experiment on granite! slip events! Force (kg)! Time (seconds)! microfractures! per second! What happens between events?! from: van der Pluijm and Marshak!
51 elastic rebound theory! 3 m offset! 1906 San Francisco earthquake!
52
53 GPS geodetic results! plates move at cm s/yr (we must see the motion)! use high end equipment that sees many satellites and all emitted frequencies! collect data every 30s for 2-3 days! process using JPL software! "(do not need position in real-time)! occupy site first time, wait and return to exact spot marked by stainless steel pin!
54 what do the data look like? time series
55 ! How does GPS geodesy constrain fault behavior?! look at elastic strain accumulation (elastic rebound theory)! fault (red line) cuts through landscape;! " yellow line is marker that lies across fault (A)! sides move over time (10 s-100 s of years) but fault does not break;! "marker is deformed, i.e. strained (B)! sides continue moving; marker more deformed (C) fault breaks (instantaneous); releases accumulated strain in earthquake (D)! MAP VIEW! X! X! X! X! Y! Y! Y! Y! A: time 1! B: time 2! C: time 3! D: time 4! Time B+C is interseismic (fault locked); D is coseismic!
56 Cicum-Caribbean Population at Risk for Natural Hazards 0.3 M Source: CIA Factbook Total = 130 M 11.3 M 3.9 M 6.8 M 2.7 M 16.5 M 2.0 M 6.6 M 5.4 M 4.0 M 3.0 M 42 M 25 M 1.1 M
57 Interseismic velocity field! GPS geodetic sites measured since 2003! Calais unpublished data
58 GPS data used for modeling fault slip and strain accumulation also used known:! " geologic slip rates (Septentrional)! " fault orientations and geometries!
59 model geometry each color is distinct fault segment for which parameters are "estimated (slip rate and locking)!! faults bound rigid blocks that move/rotate! "!
60 From Manaker et al., 2008, Geophys. J. Int.
61 GPS derived velocities after earthquake!
62 96 W 92 W 88 W 84 W 80 W 76 W 72 W 68 W From Braun et al., N 20 N 16 N 12 N 8 N 4 N New cgps + metpack sites (n=50) Existing or planned sites to be archived and processed (n=62) Existing to be upgraded (n=15) 64 W 60 W
63 Real Time (1 Hz) GPS Kinematic Solution Sendai event From
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