Physics Higher Units 1 and 2. Note: The Radiation and Matter component of Higher Physics will appear on the following Science CD-ROM.

Transcription

1 Physics Higher Units 1 and Note: The Radiation and Matter component of Higher Physics will appear on the following Science CD-ROM.

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3 Spring 1999 HIGHER STILL Physics Higher Support Materials

4 This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no profit is derived from the reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged. First published 1999 Higher Still Development Unit PO Box Ladywell House Ladywell Road Edinburgh EH12 7YH

5 HIGHER PHYSICS - STAFF NOTES Checklist Higher Physics course and units The Higher Physics course is divided into the following three units. Mechanics and Properties of Matter (40 hours) Electricity and Electronics (40 hours) Radiation and Matter (40 hours) The support materials For each of the three units the student material contains the following sections. Checklist Summary Notes Activities Problems (with numerical answers) In addition there is a separate section dealing with uncertainties, units and prefixes. It should be noted that the Content Statements associated with uncertainties are part of each of the three units, see the Arrangements for Physics. Although the Higher Physics units could be taught in any order, current practice indicates that the Mechanics and Properties of Matter is usually taught first. Hence the section dealing with uncertainties is placed at the start of this unit. The examples in the section on uncertainties are taken from topics in this unit. The problem sections of the other two units contain a few additional questions on uncertainties. The student materials are to provide assistance to the teacher or lecturer delivering a unit or the course. They are not a self standing open learning package. They require to be supplemented by learning and teaching strategies. This is to ensure that all the unit or course content is covered and that the students are given the support they need to acquire the necessary knowledge, understanding and skills demanded by the unit or the course. Checklists These are lists of the content statements taken directly from the Arrangements for Physics documentation. Summary Notes These notes are a brief summary of all the essential content and include a few basic worked examples. They are intended to aid students in their revision for unit and course assessment. Explanation of the concepts and discussion of applications are for the teacher or lecturer to include as appropriate. Physics: Higher Staff notes 5

6 Checklist Activities The activity pages provide suggestions for experimental work. A variety of practical activities have been included for each unit. The instruction sheet can be adapted to suit the equipment available in the centre. Some activities are more suitable for teacher demonstration and these have been included for use where appropriate. For each unit there is a range of activities. Although it is desirable that students are able to undertake practical investigations, it must be mentioned that this does not imply that all activities must be undertaken. The teacher or lecturer should decide what to select depending on the needs of their students and the learning and teaching approaches adopted. For Outcome 3 of each unit one report of a practical activity is required. Some activities suitable for the achievement of Outcome 3 have been highlighted and should be seen as an opportunity to develop good practice. Problems A variety of problems have been collated to give the student opportunity for practice and to aid the understanding of the unit or course content. Use of the materials The checklists may be issued at the end or at the beginning of a unit depending on the teacher s discretion. Hence for each unit the checklists are given with separate page numbers. The rest of the material for each unit is numbered consecutively through the summary notes, activities and problems. The uncertainties section is numbered separately. Some staff may wish to cover this material at the start of the course, others may prefer to introduce the concepts more gradually during early experimental work. (For unit assessment, uncertainties are covered in Outcome 3. The course assessment will contain questions which will sample uncertainties within the context of any of the units.) When photocopying a colour code for each section could be an advantage. For some units it could be preferable to split the unit into subsections. For example, the Mechanics and Properties of Matter unit might have a first subsection booklet for kinematics which would entail selecting appropriate summary notes, activities, problems and numerical answers. Learning and Teaching A variety of teaching methods can be used. Direct teaching whether it be to a whole class or small groups is an essential part of the learning process. A good introduction to a topic; for example, a demonstration, activity or video, is always of benefit to capture the minds of the students and generate interest in the topic. Applications should be mentioned and included wherever possible. Physics: Higher Staff notes 6

7 Checklist Further materials A course booklet will be issued which will contain additional problems including: examination type questions of a standard suitable for estimates of course performance and evidence for appeals revision home exercises for ongoing monitoring of progress. Outcome 3 The Handbook: Assessing Outcome 3 Higher Physics contains specific advice for this outcome together with exemplar instruction sheets and sample student reports. Specimen Course Assessment A specimen course question paper together with marking scheme has been issued by SQA. This pack also contains the updated Details of the instrument for external assessment from the Arrangements for Physics. Physics: Higher Staff notes 7

8 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER Checklist The knowledge and understanding content for this unit is given below. Vectors 1. Distinguish between distance and displacement. 2. Distinguish between speed and velocity. 3. Define and classify vector and scalar quantities. 4. Use scale diagrams, or otherwise, to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of a number of displacements or velocities. 5. State what is meant by the resultant of a number of forces. 6. Carry out calculations to find the rectangular components of a vector. 7. Use scale diagrams, or otherwise, to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of a number of forces. Equations of motion 1. State that acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time. 2. Describe the principles of a method for measuring acceleration. 3. Draw an acceleration-time graph using information obtained from a velocity-time graph for motion with a constant acceleration. 4. Use the terms constant velocity and constant acceleration to describe motion represented in graphical or tabular form. 5. Show how the following relationships can be derived from basic definitions in kinematics: v = u + at s = ut at v = u + 2as 2 6. Carry out calculations using the above kinematic relationships. Newton s Second Law, energy and power 1. Define the newton. 2. Carry out calculations using the relationship F = ma in situations where resolution of forces is not required. 3. Use free body diagrams to analyse the forces on an object. 4. Carry out calculations involving work done, potential energy, kinetic energy and power. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) 1

9 Checklist Momentum and impulse 1. State that momentum is the product of mass and velocity. 2. State that the law of conservation of linear momentum can be applied to the interaction of two objects moving in one dimension, in the absence of net external forces. 3. State that an elastic collision is one in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. 4. State that an inelastic collision is one in which only momentum is conserved. 5. Carry out calculations concerned with collisions in which the objects move in only one dimension. 6. Carry out calculations concerned with explosions in one dimension. 7. Apply the law of conservation of momentum to the interaction of two objects moving in one direction to show that: a) the changes in momentum of each object are equal in size and opposite in direction b) the forces acting on each object are equal in size and opposite indirection. 8. State that impulse = force time. 9. State that impulse = change in momentum. 10. Carry out calculations using the relationship, impulse = change of momentum. Density and Pressure 1. State that density is mass per unit volume. 2. Carry out calculations involving density, mass and volume. 3. Describe the principles of a method for measuring the density of air. 4. State and explain the relative magnitudes of the densities of solids, liquids and gases. 5. State that pressure is the force per unit area, when the force acts normal to the surface. 6. State that one pascal is one newton per square metre. 7. Carry out calculations involving pressure, force and area. 8. State that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is given by h8g. 9. Carry out calculations involving pressure, density and depth. 10. Explain buoyancy force (upthrust) in terms of the pressure difference between the top and bottom of an object. Gas laws 1. Describe how the kinetic model accounts for the pressure of a gas. 2. State that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its volume. 3. State that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is directly proportional to its temperature measured in kelvin K. 4. State that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its temperature measured in kelvin K. 5. Carry out calculations to convert temperatures in o C to K and vice versa. 6. Carry out calculations involving pressure, volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas using the general gas equation. 7. Explain what is meant by absolute zero of temperature. 8. Explain the pressure-volume, pressure-temperature and volume-temperature laws qualitatively in terms of the kinetic model. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) 2

10 Checklist Uncertainties 1. State that measurement of any physical quantity is liable to uncertainty. 2. Distinguish between random uncertainties and recognised systematic effects. 3. State that the scale reading uncertainty is a measure of how well an instrument scale can be read. 4. Explain why repeated measurements of a physical quantity are desirable. 5. Calculate the mean value of a number of measurements of the same physical quantity. 6. State that this mean is the best estimate of a true value of the quantity being measured. 7. State that where a systematic effect is present the mean value of the measurements will be offset from a true value of the physical quantity being measured. 8. Calculate the approximate random uncertainty in the mean value of a set of measurements using the relationship: approximate random uncertainty in the mean = maximum value - minimum value number of measurements taken 9. Estimate the scale-reading uncertainty incurred when using an analogue display and a digital display. 10. Express uncertainties in absolute or percentage form. 11. Identify, in an experiment where more than one physical quantity has been measured, the quantity with the largest percentage uncertainty. 12. State that this percentage uncertainty is often a good estimate of the percentage uncertainty in the final numerical result of the experiment. 13. Express the numerical result of an experiment in the form: final value ± uncertainty. Units, prefixes and scientific notation 1. Use SI units of all physical quantities appearing in the Content Statements. 2. Give answers to calculations to an appropriate number of significant figures. 3. Check answers to calculations. 4. Use prefixes (p, n, µ, m, k, M, G). 5. Use scientific notation. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) 3

11 UNCERTAINTIES Uncertainties It is important to realise a degree of uncertainty is associated with any measured physical quantity. Systematic Effects These can occur when the measurements are affected all in the same way e.g. a metre stick might have shrunk, thus giving consistently incorrect readings. At this level, the systematic effect tends to be small enough to be ignored. Where accuracy is of the utmost importance, the apparatus would be calibrated against a known standard. Note that a systematic effect might also be present if the experimenter is making the same mistake each time in taking a reading. Random Uncertainty Random fluctuations can affect measurements from reading to reading, e.g. consecutive timings of the period of a pendulum can differ. The best estimate of the true value is given by repeating the readings and then calculating the mean value. The random uncertainty is then calculated using the formula below. Random uncertainty = maximum reading - minimum reading number of readings Scale Reading Uncertainty This value indicates how well an instrument scale can be read. An estimate of reading uncertainty for an analogue scale is generally taken as: ± half the least division of the scale. Note: for widely spaced scales, this can be a little pessimistic and a reasonable estimate should be made. For a digital scale it is taken as ± 1 in the least significant digit displayed. Examples 6 7 cm 0 10 m 8.94 s ( ) cm Length lies between (6.55 and 6.65) cm ( ) m Length lies between (8.5 and 9.5) m ( ) s Time lies between (8.93 and 8.95) s. Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 1

12 Example The times for 10 swings of a pendulum are: 1.1, 1.4, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.1 s Uncertainties Mean value = 1.2 s Random uncertainty = maximum - minimum number of readings = = 0.06 s Time for 10 swings = (1.2 ± 0.1) s = 1.2 s ± 5 % Note: when the uncertainty is expressed in units then it is known as the absolute uncertainty. In this case this is s, or ± 0.1 s. Comparison of Uncertainties When comparing uncertainties, it is important to take the percentage in each. Suppose in an experiment the following uncertainties were found. Systematic = 0.1 % Scale Reading = 2 % Random = 0.5 % The overall uncertainty should be taken as the highest percentage uncertainty. In this case, this would be the reading uncertainty at 2 %. Note: since accuracy is now being quantified, it is essential when using a calculator that all the figures are not taken down, since every number stated indicates the degree of accuracy. As a general rule, your answer should contain the same number of significant figures as the least accurate reading. Examples 1. Refer to the example at the top of the page. The mean value is 1.22 s and the random uncertainty 0.06 s. However, all the readings are to two significant figures hence the final answer must be written as (1.2 ± 0.1)s as shown. 2. Calculate the average speed and absolute uncertainty from the following readings. s = (1.54 ± 0.02) m % uncertainty in s = t = (1.69 ± 0.01) s % uncertainty in t = = 1.3 % = 0.6 % Highest uncertainty taken = 1.3 % v = s = 1.54 = ms -1 ± 1.3% t % of m s -1 = m s -1 (converts % to absolute uncertainty) v = (0.91 ± 0.01) m s -1 Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 2

13 ACTIVITY Uncertainties Title: Uncertainties Aim: to find the average speed of a trolley moving down a slope, estimating the uncertainty in the final value. Apparatus: 1 ramp, 1 metre stick, 1 trolley, 1 stop clock. Instructions Set up a slope and mark two points 85 cm apart. Note the scale reading uncertainty. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the distance. Ensuring the trolley starts from the same point each time, measure how long it takes the trolley to pass between the two points. Repeat 5 times, calculate the mean time and estimate the random uncertainty. Note the scale reading uncertainty in the time. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the time. Calculate the average speed and associated uncertainty. Express your result in the form: (speed ± absolute uncertainty) m s -1 Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 3

14 Problems Uncertainties 1. Calculate the percentage uncertainties for the following absolute readings: a) (4.65 ± 0.05) V b) (892 ± 5) cm c) (1.8 ± 0.4) A d) (2.87 ± 0.02) s e) (13.8 ± 0.5) Hz f) (5.2 ± 0.1) m. 2. State the three types of uncertainty, explaining the difference between them. 3. Manufacturers of resistors state the uncertainty in their products by using colour codes. Gold - 5 % accuracy. Silver - 10 % accuracy. Calculate the possible ranges for the following resistors for each colour. a) 1 k Ω b) 10 k Ω c) 22 Ω 4. For each of the following scales, write down the reading and estimate the uncertainty. 0.3 a) b) c) cm 0.2 mm e) f) g) 7.84 s ma o C Calculate the mean time and random uncertainty for the following readings: 0.8 s, 0.6 s, 0.5 s, 0.6 s and 0.4 s. 6. A student uses light gates and suitably interfaced computer to measure the acceleration of a trolley as it moves down a slope. The following results were obtained. a / m s , 5.24, 5.21, 5.19, 5.12, 5.20, 5.17, Calculate the mean acceleration and the corresponding random uncertainty. 7. AB is measured using a metre stick. A trolley is timed between AB. The following results were obtained. AB = ( ) cm t/s 1.21, 1.21, 1.26, 1.27, 1.24 and B A Express the average speed in the form (value ± absolute uncertainty). Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 4

15 Solutions Uncertainties 1. (a) uncertainty = = 1.1 % (b) 0.6 % (c) 22 % (d) 0.7 % (e) 3.6 % (f) 1.9 % 2. Systematic effect: affects all readings in the same way. Can be due to apparatus limitations or fault in experimental approach. Reading uncertainty: accuracy limited by quality of scale ± half the least division (analogue) or good estimate. ± 1 in the least significant digit (digital). Random uncertainty: random fluctuations between readings. Effect is minimised by repeating readings. Uncertainty = maximum reading - minimum reading number of readings 3. (a) Gold 5 % of 1kΩ = 0.05 kω Silver 10 % of 1kΩ = 0.1kΩ (b) Silver ( ) Ω (c) Silver ( ) Ω Range is ( ) kω Range is ( ) kω Gold ( ) Ω Gold ( ) Ω = ( ) Ω = ( ) Ω 4. (a) ( 3.2 ± 0.1) mm (b) (2.30 ± 0.05) cm (c) (0.250 ± 0.005) 0 C (d) (2.4 ± 0.2) g (e) (7.84 ± 0.01) s (f) (1.005 ± 0.001) s (g) (195 ± 1) ma 5. ( ) Mean time = 5 ( ) Random uncertainty = = 0.08 s 5 t = (0.6 ± 0.1) s = 0.6 s 6. Mean a = 5.19 m s Random error = = ms -2 8 a = (5.19 ± 0.02) m s AB = (60.0 ± 0.1) cm = 60 cm ± 0.17 % Random uncertainty in t = 6 Mean t = (1.25 ± 0.01) s = 1.25 s ± 0.8 % = s Greatest percentage uncertainty is 0.8 % in the time. v = s t = ± 0.8% = 48.0 cm s-1 ± 0.8% = (48.0 ± 0.4) m s -1 Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 5

16 PREFIXES Prefixes The following are prefixes used to denote multiples and sub-multiples of any unit used to measure a physical quantity. Name Symbol Power of 10 tera T giga G 10 9 mega M 10 6 kilo k 10 3 multiples centi c 10-2 milli m 10-3 micro µ 10-6 sub-multiples nano n 10-9 pico p Questions Use scientific notation to write the measurements in the units shown gigahertz = 12 GHz = Hz megohms = 4.7 MΩ = Ω kilometres = 46 km = m millivolts = 3.6 mv = V milliamps = 0.55 ma = A microamps = 25 µa = A nanometres = 630 nm = m picofarads = 2200 pf = F Rewrite the following quantities in the units shown m = km Ω = MΩ Hz = GHz = MHz V = mv = µv A = µa = ma m = nm F = pf = µf Physics: Uncertainties and Prefixes (H) 6

17 VECTORS Summary Notes Distance and Displacement. Distance is the total path length. It is fully described by magnitude (size) alone. Displacement is the direct length from a starting point to a finishing point. To describe displacement both magnitude and direction must be given. Example A woman walks 3 km due North (000) and then 4 km due East (090). Find her a) distance travelled b) displacement i.e. how far she is from where she started? B 4 km C (Finish) 3 km Displacement A (Start) Using a scale of 1cm: 1km draw an accurate scale diagram as shown above. a) Distance travelled = AB + BC = 7 km b) Measuring AC = 5 cm. Convert using the scale gives the magnitude of the displacement = 5 km Use a protractor to check angle BAC = 53 o that is 53 o east of north. Displacement = 5 km (053) Speed and Velocity These two quantities are fundamentally different. Average speed = distance time Average velocity = displacement time Velocity has an associated direction, being the same as that of the displacement. The unit for both these quantities is metres per second, m s -1. Vectors and Scalars A scalar quantity is completely defined by stating its magnitude. A vector quantity is completely defined by stating its magnitude and direction. Examples are given below. Vectors Scalars Displacement Distance Velocity Speed Acceleration Time Force Mass Impulse Energy Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 1

18 Addition of Vectors When vectors are being added, their magnitude and direction must be taken into account. This can be done using a scale diagram and adding the vectors tip to tail, then joining the starting and finishing points. The final sum is known as the resultant, the single vector that has the same effect as the sum of the individuals. Example Find the resultant force acting at point O. O N 5 N Step 1: Choose a suitable scale, e.g. 1 cm to 1 N. Step 2: Arrange arrows tip to tail. Step 3: Draw in resultant vector, measuring its length and direction. (000) A 8 N B N 1 cm to 1 N. AC = 12.2 cm Force = 12.2 N Using a protractor, angle BAC measures 12 0 Bearing = = Resultant Force = 12.2 N at (102) Vectors at right angles If the vectors are at right angles then it may be easier to use Pythagoras to find the resultant and trigonometry to find an angle. Addition of more than two vectors Use a scale diagram and ensure that each vector is placed tip to tail to the previous vector. The resultant vector is the vector from the starting point to the finishing point in magnitude and direction. Resultant of a number of forces The resultant of a number of forces is that single force which has the same effect, in both magnitude and direction, as the sum of the individual forces. C Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 2

19 Rectangular components of a vector Resolution of a vector into horizontal and vertical components. Any vector v can be split up into a horizontal component v h and vertical component v v. v v v =? θ is equivalent to v h =? v θ v v v h Example A shell is fired from a cannon as shown. Calculate its a) horizontal component of velocity b) vertical component of velocity. 50 m s-1 a) v h = v cos u = 50 cos 60 = 25 m s -1 b) v v = v sin u = 50 sin 60 = 43 m s So 50 m s m s -1 is equivalent to m s-1 Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 3

20 EQUATIONS OF MOTION Acceleration Acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit time. The unit is metre per second squared, m s -2. a = v - u t where v = final velocity u = initial velocity t = time taken Measuring acceleration Acceleration is measured by determining the initial velocity, final velocity and time taken. A double mask which interrupts a light gate can provide the data to a microcomputer and give a direct reading of acceleration. Acceleration-time and velocity-time graphs Constant velocity v / m s -1 Constant positive acceleration (velocity increasing) v / m s -1 Constant deceleration Constant negative acceleration (velocity decreasing) v / m s -1 t / s t / s t / s a / m s -2 a / m s -2 a / m s -2 t / s t / s t / s a = 0 acceleration is positive acceleration is negative Constant velocity and constant acceleration The velocity time graph below illustrates these terms. O v / m s -1 A B C t / s OA AB BC is constant acceleration, the acceleration is positive. is constant velocity, the acceleration is zero. is constant deceleration, the acceleration is negative. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 4

21 Equations of motion v = u + at s = ut at2 where: u - initial velocity of object at time t = 0 v - final velocity of object at time t a - acceleration of object t - time to accelerate from u to v s - displacement in time t. v 2 = u 2 + 2as These equations of motion apply providing: the motion is in a straight line the acceleration is uniform. When using the equations of motion, note: the quantities u, v, s and a are all vector quantities a positive direction must be chosen and quantities in the reverse direction must be given a negative sign a deceleration will be negative, for movement in the positive direction. Derivation of equations of motion The velocity - time graph for an object accelerating uniformly from u to v in time t is shown below. a = v - u v / m s-1 v t A Changing the subject of the formula gives: u B v = u + at [1] The displacement s in time t is equal to the area under the velocity time graph. Area = Area of triangle A + area of rectangle B s = 1 (v-u)t + ut 2 t / s but from equation 1, v-u = at s = 1 2 (at)t + ut s = ut at [2] Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 5

22 Using v = u + at, v 2 = (u + at) 2 v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2 v 2 = u 2 + 2a(ut at2 ) Since s = ut at2 v 2 = u 2 + 2as [3] Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 6

23 Projectile motion A projectile has a combination of vertical and horizontal motions. Various experiments show that these horizontal and vertical motions are totally independent of each other. Closer study gives the following information about each component. Horizontal: constant speed Vertical: constant acceleration downward (due to gravity). Example An object is released from an aircraft travelling horizontally at 1000 m s -1. The object takes 40 s to reach the ground. a) What is the horizontal distance travelled by the object? b) What was the height of the aircraft when the object was released? c) Calculate the vertical velocity of the object just before impact. d) Find the resultant velocity of the object just before hitting the ground. Before attempting the solution, you should divide your page into horizontal and vertical and enter appropriate information given or known. Horizontal Vertical v h = 1000 m s-1 t = 40 s t = 40 s uv = 0 a = 9.8 ms2 a) sh =? b) sv =? sv = ut + at2 sh = v t = = m = = m s-1 (downwards) c) vv =? = 7840 m = 392 m vv = u + at vv = 392 d) tanx = = 21o v2 = Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 7

24 NEWTON S SECOND LAW, ENERGY AND POWER Dynamics deals with the forces causing motion and the properties of the resulting moving system. Newton s 1st Law of Motion Newton s 1st law of Motion states that an object will remain at rest or travel with a constant speed in a straight line (constant velocity) unless acted on by an unbalanced force. Newton s 2nd Law Newton s 2nd law of motion states that the acceleration of an object: varies directly as the unbalanced force applied if the mass is constant varies inversely as the mass if the unbalanced force is constant. These can be combined to give F a m a = kf m where k is a constant kf = ma The unit of force, the newton is defined as the resultant force which will cause a mass of 1kg to have an acceleration of 1 m s -2. Substituting in the above equation. k 1 = 1 1 k = 1 Provided F is measured in newtons, the equation below applies. F = ma m s -2 N kg Free Body Diagrams Some examples will have more than one force acting on an object. It is advisable to draw a diagram of the situation showing the direction of all forces present acting through one point. These are known as free body diagrams. Examples 1. On take off, the thrust on a rocket of mass 8000 kg is 200,000 N. Find the acceleration of the rocket. Thrust = 200,000 N Resultant force = ,400 = 121,600 N Weight = mg = = 78,400 N Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 8

25 a = F m = = 15.2 m s A woman is standing on a set of bathroom scales in a stationary lift (a normal everyday occurrence!). The reading on the scales is 500 N. When she presses the ground floor button, the lift accelerates downwards and the reading on the scales at this moment is 450 N. Find the acceleration of the lift. Weight = 500 N W = 500 N Force upwards = 500 N F = 450 N (reading on scales) Lift is stationary, forces balance W = F = 500 N Lift accelerates downwards, unbalanced force acts. Resultant Force = Weight - Force from floor = W - F = = 50 N a = Resultant Force m = = 1 m s Tension A ski tow pulls 2 skiers who are connected by a thin nylon rope along a frictionless surface. The tow uses a force of 70 N and the skiers have masses of 60 kg and 80 kg. Find a) the acceleration of the system b) the tension in the rope. T 70 N 60 kg 80kg a) Total mass, m = 140 kg a = F m = 70 = 0.5 m s b) Consider the 60 kg skier alone. Tension, T = ma = = 30 N Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 9

26 Resolution of a Force In the previous section, a vector was split into horizontal and vertical components. This can obviously apply to a force. F v = Fsin θ F is equivalent to F h = Fcos Example A man pulls a garden roller of mass 100 kg with a force of 200 N acting at 30 0 to the horizontal. If there is a frictional force of 100 N between the roller and the ground, what is the acceleration of the roller along the ground? F h = F cos = 200 cos 30 0 =173.2 N Resultant F h = Friction = = 73.2 N a = F m = = m s-2 Force Acting Down a Plane If an object is placed on a slope then its weight acts vertically downwards. A certain component of this force will act down the slope. The weight can be split into two components at right angles to each other. Reaction Force Friction 100 N 300 F h Component of weight down slope = mgsin mgsinθ θ θ mg mgcosθ Component perpendicular to slope = mgcos Example A wooden block of mass 2 kg is placed on a slope at 30 to the horizontal as shown. A frictional force of 4 N acts up the slope. The block slides down the slope for a distance of 3 m. Determine the speed of the block at the bottom of the slope. 3 m 2 kg Friction = 4 N 30 0 Component of weight acting down slope = mg sin30 = = 9.8 N Resultant force down slope = friction = = 5.8 N a = F/ v 2 = u 2 + 2as = 5.8 / 2 = Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 10

27 = 2.9 m s -2 = 17.4 v = 4.2 m s -1 Conservation of Energy The total energy of a closed system must be conserved, although the energy may change its form. The equations for calculating kinetic energy E k, gravitational potential energy E p and work done are given below. E p = mgh E k = 1 2 mv2 work done = force displacement Energy and work are measured in joules J. Example A trolley is released down a slope from a height of 0.3 m. If its speed at the bottom is found to be 2 m s -1, find a) the energy difference between the E p at top and E k at the bottom. b) the work done by friction c) the force of friction on the trolley 2 m 1 kg h = 0.3 m a) E p at top = mgh = = 2.94 J E k at bottom = 1 2 mv2 = = 2 J Energy difference = 0.94 J b) Work done by friction = energy difference (due to heat, sound) = 0.94 J c) Work done = Force of friction d = 0.94 J d = 2 m F = 0.94 = 0.47 N 2 Force of friction = 0.47 N Power Power is the rate of transformation of energy from one form to another. P = energy time = work done time = F displacement t = F average velocity Power is measured in watts W. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 11

28 MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE The momentum of an object is given by: Momentum = mass velocity of the object. Momentum = mv kg m s -1 kg m s -1 Note: momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of the momentum is the same as that of the velocity. Conservation of Momentum When two objects collide it can be shown that momentum is conserved provided there are no external forces applied to the system. For any collision: Total momentum of all objects before = total momentum of all objects after. Elastic and inelastic collisions An elastic collision is one in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved. An inelastic collision is one in which only momentum is conserved. Example a) A car of mass 1200 kg travelling at 10 m s -1 collides with a stationary car of mass 1000 kg. If the cars lock together find their combined speed. b) By comparing the kinetic energy before and after the collision, find out if the collision is elastic or inelastic. Draw a simple sketch of the cars before and after the collision. 10 m s-1 v = 0 v =? 1200 kg 1000 kg ( )kg BEFORE AFTER a) Momentum = mv Momentum = mv = = ( ) v = kg m s -1 = 2200v kg m s -1 Total momentum before = Total momentum after = 2200v = v v = 5.5 m s -1 Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 12

29 b) Ek = 1 2 mv2 Ek = 1 2 mv2 = = = 60,000 J = 33,275 J Kinetic energy is not the same, so the collision is inelastic Vector nature of momentum Remember momentum is a vector quantity, so direction is important. Since the collisions dealt with will act along the same line, then the directions can be simplified by giving: momentum to the right a positive sign and momentum to the left a negative sign. Example Find the unknown velocity below. v = 4m s -1 v =? 8 kg 6 kg BEFORE Momentum = mv = (8 4) - (6 2) = 20 kg m s -1 (8 + 6 )kg AFTER Momentum = mv = (8 + 6)v = 14v Total momentum before = Total momentum after 20 = 14v v = = 1.43 m s-1 Trolleys will move to the right at 1.43 m s -1 since v is positive. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 13

30 Explosions A single stationary object may explode into two parts. The total initial momentum will be zero. Hence the total final momentum will be zero. Notice that the kinetic energy increases in such a process. Example Two trolleys shown below are exploded apart. Find the unknown velocity. Stationary 3 m s -1 v =? 2 kg 1kg 2 kg 1kg BEFORE AFTER Total momentum = mv Total momentum = mv = 0 = - (2x3) + 1v = v Total momentum before = Total momentum after 0 = -6 + v v = 6 m s -1 to the right (since v is positive). Impulse An object is accelerated by a force F for a time, t. The unbalanced force is given by: F = ma = m(v - u) t = mv - mu t Unbalanced force = change in momentum time Ft = mv - mu = rate of change of momentum The term Ft is called the impulse and is equal to the change in momentum. Note: the unit of impulse, Ns will be equivalent to kg m s -1. The concept of impulse is useful in situations where the force is not constant and acts for a very short period of time. One example of this is when a golf ball is hit by a club. During contact the unbalanced force between the club and the ball varies with time as shown below. F t Since F is not constant the impulse (Ft) is equal to the area under the graph. In any calculation involving impulse the unbalanced force calculated is always the average force and the maximum force experienced would be greater than the calculated average value. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 14

31 Examples 1. In a snooker game, the cue ball, of mass 0.2 kg, is accelerated from the rest to a velocity of 2 m s -1 by a force from the cue which lasts 50 ms. What size of force is exerted by the cue? u = 0 v = 2 m s -1 t = 50 ms = 0.05 s m = 0.2 kg F =? Ft = mv - mu F 0.05 = F = 8 N 2. A tennis ball of mass 100 g, initially at rest, is hit by a racket. The racket is in contact with the ball for 20 ms and the force of contact varies over this period as shown in the graph. Determine the speed of the ball as it leaves the racket. F / N 400 Impulse = Area under graph = = 4 N s 20 t / ms 2 1 u = 0 m = 100 g = 0.1 kg v =? Ft = mv - mu = 0.1v 4 = 0.1 v v = 40 m s A tennis ball of mass 0.1 kg travelling horizontally at 10 m s -1 is struck in the opposite direction by a tennis racket. The tennis ball rebounds horizontally at 15 m s -1 and is in contact with the racket for 50 ms. Calculate the force exerted on the ball by the racket. m = 0.1 kg u = 10 m s -1 v = -15 m s -1 (opposite direction to u) t = 50 ms = 0.05 s Ft = mv - mu 0.05 F = 0.1 (-15) = = -2.5 F = -2.5 = -50 N (Negative indicates force in opposite direction to initial velocity) 0.05 Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 15

32 Newton s 3rd Law and Momentum Newton s 3rd law states that if an object A exerts a force (ACTION) on object B then object B will exert an equal and opposite force (REACTION) on object A. This law can be proved using the conservation of momentum. Consider a jet engine expelling gases in an aircraft. Let F A be the force on the aircraft by the gases and F G be the force on the gases by the engine (aircraft). F G F A Let the positive direction be to the left (direction of Fa) In a small time, let m G be the mass of the gas expelled and m A be the mass of the aircraft. total momentum before = total momentum after O = m G v G + m A v A m G v G = - m A v A [v B and v A in opposite directions] (m G v G - O) = -(m A v A - O) Change in momentum of gas = - (change in momentum of aircraft) Changes in momentum of each object are equal in size but opposite in direction. If forces act in time, t Force = change in momentum t F G = (m G v G - O) FA = (m A v A - O) (u A = u G = O) t t But (m G v G - O) = (m A v A - O) from above F G = - F A since t is the same for the engine and gas. The forces acting are equal in size and opposite in direction. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 16

33 DENSITY AND PRESSURE Density The mass per unit volume of a substance is called the density, r. (The symbol, 8, is the Greek letter rho). 8 = density in kilograms per cubic metre, kg m - 3 m 8 = V m = mass in kilograms, kg V = volume in cubic metres, m 3 Example Calculate the density of a 10 kg block of carbon measuring 10 cm by 20 cm by 25 cm. First, calculate volume, V, in m 3 : V = = m 3 8 =? 8 = m 10 m = 10 kg V V = m 3 = 2000 kg m -3 Densities of Solids, Liquids and Gases From the table opposite, it can be seen that the relative magnitude of the densities of solids and liquids are similar but the relative magnitude of gases are smaller by a factor of When a solid melts to a liquid, there is little relative change in volume due to expansion. The densities of liquids and solids have similar magnitudes. When a liquid evaporates to a gas, there is a large relative change in volume due to the expansion of the material. The volume of a gas is approximately 1000 times greater than the volume of the same mass of the solid or liquid form of the substance. The densities of gases are smaller than the densities of solids and liquids by a factor of approximately cm 25 cm 20 cm Substance Density (kg m -3 ) Ice 920 Water 1000 Steam 0.9 Aluminium 2700 Iron 7860 Perspex 1190 Ethanol 791 Olive oil 915 Vinegar 1050 Oxygen 1.43 Nitrogen 1.25 It follows, therefore, that the spacing of the particles is a gas must be approximately 10 times greater than in a liquid or solid. Solid or liquid d Gas 10d 10d 10d Volume occupied by each particle Volume occupied by each particle = d 3 = (10d) 3 = 1000 d 3 Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 17

34 Pressure Pressure on a surface is defined as the force acting normal (perpendicular) to the surface. p = F A p = pressure in pascals, Pa F = normal force in newtons, N A = area in square metres, m 2 1 pascal is equivalent to 1 newton per square metre; ie 1 Pa = 1 N m -2. Example Calculate the pressure exerted on the ground by a truck of mass 1600 kg if each wheel has an area of 0.02 m 2 in contact with the ground. Total area A = = 0.08 m 2 Normal force F = weight of truck = mg = = N Area = 0.02 m2 p =? F = N p = F = A = 0.08 m2 A 0.08 Pressure In Fluids = 196,000 Pa or 196 kpa Fluid is a general term which describes liquids and gases. Any equations that apply to liquids at rest equally apply to gases at rest. The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest of density 8, depth h below the surface, is given by p = h 8 g p = pressure in pascals, Pa h = depth in metres, m 8 = density of the fluid in kg m -3 g = gravitational field strength in N kg -1 Example Calculate the pressure due to the water at a depth of 15 m in water. p =? p = h 8 g h = 15 m = water = 1000 kg m -3 = Pa g = 9.8 N kg-1 surface 15 m Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 18

35 Buoyancy Force (Upthrust) When a body is immersed in a fluid, it appears to lose weight. The body experiences an upwards force due to being immersed in the fluid. This upwards force is called an upthrust. This upthrust or buoyancy force can be explained in terms of the forces acting on the body due to the pressure acting on each of the surfaces of the body. Pressure on the top surface p top = h top 8g Pressure on bottom surface p bottom = h bottom 8g h top p top h bottom The bottom surface of the body is at a greater depth than the top surface, therefore the pressure on the bottom surface is greater than on the top surface. This results in a net force upwards on the body due to the liquid. This upward force is called the upthrust. p bottom Notice that the buoyancy force (upthrust) on an object depends on the difference in the pressure on the top and bottom of the object. Hence the value of this buoyance force does not depend on the depth of the object under the surface. GAS LAWS Kinetic Theory of Gases The kinetic theory tries to explain the behaviour of gases using a model. The model considers a gas to be composed of a large number of very small particles which are far apart and which move randomly at high speeds, colliding elastically with everything they meet. Volume The volume of a gas is taken as the volume of the container. The volume occupied by the gas particles themselves is considered so small as to be negligible. Temperature The temperature of a gas depends on the kinetic energy of the gas particles. The faster the particles move, the greater their kinetic energy and the higher the temperature. Pressure The pressure of a gas is caused by the particles colliding with the walls of the container. The more frequent these collisions or the more violent these collisions, the greater will be the pressure. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 19

36 Relationship Between Pressure and Volume of a Gas Summary Notes For a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. Graph p p } 1 V p V = constant p 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 p V V Example The pressure of a gas enclosed in a cylinder by a piston changes from 80 kpa to 200 kpa. If there is no change in temperature and the initial volume was 25 litres, calculate the new volume. p 1 = 80 kpa p 1 V 1 = p 2 V 2 V 1 = 25 litres = 200 V 2 p 2 = 200 kpa V 2 = 10 litres V 2 =? Relationship Between Pressure and Temperature of a Gas If a graph is drawn of pressure against temperature in degrees celsius for a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, the graph is a straight line which does not pass through the origin. When the graph is extended until the pressure reaches zero, it crosses the temperature axis at -273 o C. This is true for all gases. p T / o C -273 Kelvin Temperature Scale -273 o C is called absolute zero and is the zero on the kelvin temperature scale. At a temperature of absolute zero, 0 K, all particle motion stops and this is therefore the lowest possible temperature. One division on the kelvin temperature scale is the same size as one division on the celsius temperature scale, i.e. temperature differences are the same in kelvin as in degrees celsius, e.g. a temperature increase of 10 C is the same as a temperature increase of 10 K. Note the unit of the kelvin scale is the kelvin, K, not degrees kelvin, K! Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 20

37 Converting Temperatures Between C and K Summary Notes Converting C to K add 273 Converting K to C subtract 273 If the graph of pressure against temperature is drawn using the kelvin temperature scale, zero on the graph is the zero on the kelvin temperature scale and the graph now goes through the origin. p T / K 0 For a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature measured in kelvin (K). p T p T = constant p1 T 1 = p T 2 2 Example Hydrogen in a sealed container at 27 C has a pressure of Pa. If it is heated to a temperature of 77 C, what will be its new pressure? p 1 = Pa T 1 = 27 C = 300 K p 2 =? T 2 = 77 C = 350 K p 2 = Pa Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 21

38 Summary Notes Relationship Between Volume and Temperature of a Gas If a graph is drawn of volume against temperature, in degrees celsius, for a fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure, the graph is a straight line which does not pass through the origin. When the graph is extended until the volume reaches zero, again it crosses the temperature axis at -273 C. This is true for all gases. V -273 If the graph of volume against temperature is drawn using the kelvin temperature scale, the graph now goes through the origin. V T / o C 0 T / K For a fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature measured in kelvin (K). V } T V T = constant V T 1 1 = V 2 T2 Example 400 cm 3 of air is at a temperature of 20 C. At what temperature will the volume be 500 cm 3 if the air pressure does not change? V 1 = 400 cm 3 T 1 = 20 C = 293 K V 2 = 500 cm 3 T 2 =? V T 1 1 =V T = 500 T T 2 = 366 K = 93 C (convert back to temperature scale in the question) Combined Gas Equation By combining the above three relationships, the following relationship for the pressure, volume and temperature of a fixed mass of gas is true for all gases. p V = constant 1 pv 1 1 T = p V T 2 Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 22

39 Summary Notes Example A balloon contains 1.5 m 3 of helium at a pressure of 100 kpa and at a temperature of 27 C. If the pressure is increased to 250 kpa at a temperature of 127 C, calculate the new volume of the balloon. p 1 = 100 kpa V 1 = 1.5 m 3 T 1 = 27 C = 300 K p 2 = 250 kpa V = V 2 =? V 2 = 0.8 m 3 T 2 = 127 C = 400 K Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 23

40 Gas Laws and the Kinetic Theory of Gases Summary Notes Pressure - Volume (constant mass and temperature) Consider a volume V of gas at a pressure p. If the volume of the container is reduced without a change in temperature, the particles of the gas will hit the walls of the container more often (but not any harder as their average kinetic energy has not changed). This will produce a larger force on the container walls. The area of the container walls will also reduce with reduced volume. As volume decreases, then the force increases and area decreases resulting in, from the definition of pressure, an increase in pressure, i.e. volume decreases hence pressure increases and vice versa. Pressure - Temperature (constant mass and volume) Consider a gas at a pressure p and temperature T. If the temperature of the gas is increased, the kinetic energy and hence speed of the particles of the gas increases. The particles collide with the container walls more violently and more often. This will produce a larger force on the container walls. As temperature increases, then the force increases resulting in, from the definition of pressure, an increase in pressure, i.e. temperature increases hence pressure increases and vice versa. Volume - Temperature (constant mass and pressure) Consider a volume V of gas at a temperature T. If the temperature of the gas is increased, the kinetic energy and hence speed of the particles of the gas increases. If the volume was to remain constant, an increase in pressure would result as explained above. If the pressure is to remain constant, then the volume of the gas must increase to increase the area of the container walls that the increased force is acting on, i.e. volume decreases hence pressure increases and vice versa. Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 24

41 ACTIVITY 1 Activities Title: Acceleration Aim: To calculate the acceleration of a trolley moving down a slope. Apparatus: 2 light gates, 1 trolley, 1 slope, 3 stopcocks, 2 power supplies. Power supply Card Light gate Timer ( t 2 ) Timer ( t 1 ) Timer ( t 3 ) Instructions Set up the apparatus as shown. Release the trolley from the top of the slope. When clock 1 starts, start clock 3 manually. When clock 2 starts, stop clock 3 manually. Repeat 5 times, ensuring the trolley takes the same path each time. Measure the length of the card. For each run calculate the acceleration. Find the mean acceleration and estimate the random uncertainty. Present your results in table form. Suggest how the experiment could be improved. Run t 1 (s) u (m s -1 ) t 2 (s) v (m s -1 ) t 3 (s) a (m s -2 ) Mean a (m s -2 ) Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 25

42 ACTIVITY 2A Activities Title: Acceleration Aim: To measure the acceleration of a trolley moving down a slope using a computer. Apparatus: 1 slope, 1 trolley and double mask, 1 light gate, computer and interface, (QED) Apparatus: 1 power supply. Power supply Card Light gate Interface Computer Instructions Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. After selecting the acceleration program, allow the trolley to run down the track. Note the value of the acceleration. Repeat 5 times. Calculate the mean acceleration and random uncertainty. Explain, in detail, how the mask arrangement allows the computation of the acceleration. ACTIVITY 2B Title: Acceleration (Outcome 3) Apparatus: as in Activity 2A Instructions For 5 different angles of slope find the corresponding acceleration. Using an appropriate format to find the relationship between the angle of slope and the acceleration. ACTIVITY 3 Title: Acceleration Aim: To measure the acceleration due to gravity. Apparatus: 1 light gate, 1 power supply, 1 metal mask, 1 computer and interface. Power supply Light gate Metal plate Interface Computer Instructions Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram. Using the acceleration program, drop the mask, so it cuts the light beam. Repeat 5 times. Calculate the mean value of the acceleration and the random uncertainty. Suggest any improvements to the experiment Physics: Mechanics and Properties of Matter (H) Student Material 26