25.2 Nuclear Transformations > Chapter 25 Nuclear Chemistry Nuclear Transformations Nuclear Radiation
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1 Chapter 25 Nuclear Chemistry 25.1 Nuclear Radiation 25.2 Nuclear Transformations 25.3 Fission and Fusion 25.4 Radiation in Your Life 1 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
2 CHEMISTRY & YOU What is the source of radon in homes? Radon may accumulate in a basement that is not well ventilated. Test kits are available to measure the levels of radon in a building. 2 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
3 Nuclear Stability and Decay Nuclear Stability and Decay What determines the type of decay a radioisotope undergoes? 3 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
4 Nuclear Stability and Decay The nuclear force is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles that are extremely close together, such as protons and neutrons in a nucleus. 4 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
5 Nuclear Stability and Decay The nuclear force is an attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles that are extremely close together, such as protons and neutrons in a nucleus. At these short distances, the nuclear force dominates over electromagnetic repulsions and holds the nucleus together. 5 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
6 Interpret Data The stability of a nucleus depends on the ratio of neutrons to protons. This graph shows the number of neutrons vs. the number of protons for all known stable nuclei. 6 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
7 Interpret Data The stability of a nucleus depends on the ratio of neutrons to protons. The region of the graph in which these points are located is called the band of stability. 7 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
8 Interpret Data The stability of a nucleus depends on the ratio of neutrons to protons. For elements of low atomic number (below about 20), this ratio is about 1. Above atomic number 20, stable nuclei have more neutrons than protons. 8 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
9 Nuclear Stability and Decay A nucleus may be unstable and undergo spontaneous decay for different reasons. The neutron-to-proton ratio in a radioisotope determines the type of decay that occurs. 9 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
10 Nuclear Stability and Decay Some nuclei are unstable because they have too many neutrons relative to the number of protons. When one of these nuclei decays, a neutron emits a beta particle (fast-moving electron) from the nucleus. 10 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
11 Nuclear Stability and Decay Some nuclei are unstable because they have too many neutrons relative to the number of protons. When one of these nuclei decays, a neutron emits a beta particle (fast-moving electron) from the nucleus. A neutron that emits an electron becomes a proton n p e 11 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
12 Nuclear Stability and Decay Some nuclei are unstable because they have too many neutrons relative to the number of protons. When one of these nuclei decays, a neutron emits a beta particle (fast-moving electron) from the nucleus. A neutron that emits an electron becomes a proton n p e This process is known as beta emission. It increases the number of protons while decreasing the number of neutrons. 12 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
13 Nuclear Stability and Decay Radioisotopes that undergo beta emission include the following Cu Zn e 14 6C N e 13 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
14 Nuclear Stability and Decay Other nuclei are unstable because they have too few neutrons relative to the number of protons. These nuclei increase their stability by converting a proton to a neutron. An electron is captured by the nucleus during this process, which is called electron capture Ni + Ar e e Co Cl 14 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
15 Nuclear Stability and Decay A positron is a particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge. 0 Its symbol is e. +1 During positron emission, a proton changes to a neutron, just as in electron capture B Be e 15 8O N e When a proton is converted to a neutron, the atomic number decreases by 1 and the number of neutrons increases by Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
16 Nuclear Stability and Decay Nuclei that have an atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive. These nuclei have both too many neutrons and too many protons to be stable. Therefore, they undergo radioactive decay. Most of them emit alpha particles. Alpha emission increases the neutron-to-proton ratio, which tends to increase the stability of the nucleus. 16 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
17 Nuclear Stability and Decay In alpha emission, the mass number decreases by four and the atomic number decreases by two Ra 86Rn + 2 He Th 88Ra + 2 He Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
18 Nuclear Stability and Decay Recall that conservation of mass is an important property of chemical reactions. In contrast, mass is not conserved during nuclear reactions. An extremely small quantity of mass is converted into energy released during radioactive decay. 18 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
19 During nuclear decay, if the atomic number decreases by one but the mass number is unchanged, the radiation emitted is A. a positron. B. an alpha particle. C. a beta particle. D. a proton. 19 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
20 During nuclear decay, if the atomic number decreases by one but the mass number is unchanged, the radiation emitted is A. a positron. B. an alpha particle. C. a beta particle. D. a proton. 20 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
21 Half-Life Half-Life How much of a radioactive sample remains after each half-life? 21 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
22 Interpret Graphs A half-life (t 1) is the time required for onehalf of the nuclei in a radioisotope sample 2 to decay to products. After each halflife, half of the original radioactive atoms have decayed into atoms of a new element. 22 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
23 Half-Life Comparing Half-Lives Half-lives can be as short as a second or as long as billions of years. Half-Lives of Some Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes Isotope Half-life Radiation emitted Carbon years b Potassium years b, g Radon days a Radium years a, g Thorium days b, g Uranium years a, g Uranium years a 23 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
24 Half-Life Comparing Half-Lives Scientists use half-lives of some long-term radioisotopes to determine the age of ancient objects. Many artificially produced radioisotopes have short half-lives, which makes them useful in nuclear medicine. Short-lived isotopes are not a long-term radiation hazard for patients. 24 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
25 Half-Life Comparing Half-Lives Uranium-238 decays through a complex series of unstable isotopes to the stable isotope lead-206. The age of uraniumcontaining minerals can be estimated by measuring the ratio of uranium-238 to lead-206. Because the half-life of uranium-238 is years, it is possible to use its half-life to date rocks as old as the solar system. 25 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
26 CHEMISTRY & YOU Uranium compounds are found in rocks and in soils that form from these rocks. How can these uranium compounds lead to a buildup of radon in homes and other buildings? 26 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
27 CHEMISTRY & YOU Uranium compounds are found in rocks and in soils that form from these rocks. How can these uranium compounds lead to a buildup of radon in homes and other buildings? Radon gas is a product of the decay of uranium. As the uranium compounds in the soil beneath homes and buildings decay, radon is produced and seeps into the structure. 27 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
28 Half-Life Radiocarbon Dating Plants use carbon dioxide to produce carbon compounds, such as glucose. The ratio of carbon-14 to other carbon isotopes is constant during an organism s life. When an organism dies, it stops exchanging carbon with the environment and its radioactive 14 6C atoms decay without being replaced. Archaeologists can use this data to estimate when an organism died. 28 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
29 Half-Life Exponential Decay Function You can use the following equation to calculate how much of an isotope will remain after a given number of half-lives. A = A 0 A stands for the amount remaining. A 0 stands for the initial amount. n stands for the number of half-lives. 1 2 n 29 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
30 Half-Life Exponential Decay Function A = A 0 The exponent n indicates how many times A 0 1 must be multiplied by to determine A n 30 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
31 Half-Life Exponential Decay Function This table shows examples in which n = 1 and n = 2. Decay of Initial Amount (A 0 ) of Radioisotope Half-Life Amount Remaining 1 0 A 0 ( 2 ) 0 = A A 0 ( ) 1 = A A 0 ( ) 2 1 = A Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
32 Sample Problem 25.1 Using Half-Lives in Calculations Carbon-14 emits beta radiation and decays with a half-life (t 1 ) of 5730 years. Assume that you start 2 with a mass of g of carbon-14. a. How long is three half-lives? b. How many grams of the isotope remain at the end of three half-lives? 32 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
33 Sample Problem Analyze List the knowns and the unknowns. To calculate the length of three half-lives, multiply the half-life by three. To find the mass of the radioisotope 1 remaining, multiply the original mass by 2 for each half-life that has elapsed. KNOWNS t 1 = 5730 years 2 initial mass (A 0 ) = g number of half-lives (n) = 3 UNKNOWNS 3 half-lives =? years mass remaining =? g 33 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
34 Sample Problem Calculate Solve for the unknowns. a. Multiply the half-life of carbon-14 by the total number of half-lives. t n = 5730 years 3 = 17,190 years Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
35 Sample Problem Calculate Solve for the unknowns. b. The initial mass of carbon-14 is reduced by one-half for each half-life. So, multiply by three times. 1 2 Remaining mass = g = g = g Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
36 Sample Problem Calculate Solve for the unknowns. b. You can get the same answer by using the equation for an exponential decay function. ( ) 1 2 n A = A 0 = ( g) = ( g) = g = g ( 1 ) 3 2 ( ) Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
37 Sample Problem Evaluate Do the results make sense? The mass of carbon-14 after three half-lives should be one-eighth of the original mass. If you divide g by g, 1 you will get 12.5%, or Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
38 The half-life of phosphorus-32 is 14.3 days. How many milligrams of phosphorus-32 remain after days if you begin with 2.5 mg of the radioisotope? 38 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
39 The half-life of phosphorus-32 is 14.3 days. How many milligrams of phosphorus-32 remain after days if you begin with 2.5 mg of the radioisotope? n = days A = A 0 ( ) 1 2 n = (2.5 mg) 1 half-life 14.3 days ( 1 ) 7 2 ( 1 ) = 7 half-lives = (2.5 mg) = mg Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
40 Transmutation Reactions Transmutation Reactions What are two ways in which transmutation can occur? 40 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
41 Transmutation Reactions For thousands of years, alchemists tried to change lead into gold. What they wanted to achieve is transmutation, or the conversion of an atom of one element into an atom of another element. 41 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
42 Transmutation Reactions Transmutation can occur by radioactive decay, or when particles bombard the nucleus of an atom. The particles may be protons, neutrons, alpha particles, or small atoms. 42 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
43 Transmutation Reactions Ernst Rutherford performed the earliest artificial transmutation in He bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles N + 2He 9F Nitrogen-14 Alpha particle Fluorine-18 The unstable fluorine atoms quickly decay to form a stable isotope of oxygen and a proton F Fluorine-18 8O + 1 1p 17 Oxygen-17 Proton 43 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
44 Transmutation Reactions Rutherford s experiment eventually led to the discovery of the proton. 1 1 P Proton 4 2 He 14 7 N 18 9 F 17 8 O Alpha particle Nitrogen atom Unstable fluorine atom Oxygen He and other scientists noticed a pattern as they did different transmutation experiments. Hydrogen nuclei were emitted. Scientists realized that these hydrogen nuclei (protons) must have a fundamental role in atomic structure. 44 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
45 Transmutation Reactions James Chadwick s discovery of the neutron in 1932 also involved a transmutation experiment. Neutrons were produced when beryllium-9 was bombarded with alpha particles Be + 2He Beryllium-9 Alpha particle 6C + 1 0n 12 Carbon-12 Neutron 45 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
46 Transmutation Reactions Elements with atomic numbers above 92, the atomic number of uranium, are called transuranium elements. None of these elements occurs in nature. All of them are radioactive. All transuranium elements undergo transmutation. 46 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
47 Transmutation Reactions Transuranium elements are synthesized in nuclear reactors and nuclear accelerators. Reactors produce beams of lowenergy particles. Accelerators are used to increase the speed of bombarding particles to very high speeds. The European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN, has a number of accelerators. The figure at right shows CERN s largest accelerator. 47 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
48 Transmutation Reactions When uranium-238 is bombarded with the relatively slow neutrons from a nuclear reactor, some uranium nuclei capture these neutrons. The product is uranium Uranium-239 is radioactive and emits a beta particle. The other product is an isotope of the artificial radioactive element neptunium (atomic number 93) U + n 238 U U 0 93Np + 1 e Neptunium is unstable and decays, emitting a beta particle and a second artificial element, plutonium (atomic number 94) Np 48 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved Pu + 1 e 239
49 Transmutation Reactions Scientists in Berkeley, California, synthesized the first two artificial elements in Since that time, more than 20 additional transuranium elements have been produced artificially. 49 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
50 Which of the following always changes when transmutation occurs? A. The number of electrons B. The mass number C. The atomic number D. The number of neutrons 50 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
51 Which of the following always changes when transmutation occurs? A. The number of electrons B. The mass number C. The atomic number D. The number of neutrons 51 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
52 Key Concepts The neutron-to-proton ratio in a radioisotope determines the type of decay that occurs. After each half-life, half of the original radioactive atoms have decayed into atoms of a new element. Transmutation can occur by radioactive decay, or when particles bombard the nucleus of an atom. 52 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
53 Key Equation A = A n 53 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
54 Glossary Terms nuclear force: an attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles that are extremely close together, like protons and neutrons in a nucleus band of stability: the location of stable nuclei on a neutron-vs.-proton plot positron: a particle with the mass of an electron but a positive charge 54 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
55 Glossary Terms half-life: the time required for one-half of the nuclei of a radioisotope sample to decay to products transmutation: the conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element transuranium elements: any elements in the periodic table with atomic number above 92, the atomic number of uranium 55 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
56 BIG IDEA Electrons and the Structure of Atoms Unstable atomic nuclei decay by emitting alpha or beta particles. Often gamma rays are emitted. 56 Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
57 END OF Copyright Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
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