METEOROLOGY ROBERT A. PAUL. Northern Essex Community College Haverhill, Massachusetts PRENTICE HALL, UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458

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1 EXERCISES IN METEOROLOGY SECOND EDITION ROBERT A. PAUL Northern Essex Community College Haverhill, Massachusetts PRENTICE HALL, UPPER SADDLE RIVER, NJ 07458

CONTENTS Preface ix 1 Introduction 1 2 The Atmosphere 13 3 Earth-Sun Relationships 21 4 Solar Radiation 31 5 Temperature 43 6 Air Pressure 63 7 Wind and the Global Circulation 81 8 Moisture in the

2 CONTENTS Preface ix 1 Introduction 1 2 The Atmosphere 13 3 Earth-Sun Relationships 21 4 Solar Radiation 31 5 Temperature 43 6 Air Pressure 63 7 Wind and the Global Circulation 81 8 Moisture in the Atmosphere 95 9 Atmospheric Stability and Adiabatics Air Masses, Fronts, and Severe Storms The Weather Map Weather Analysis and Forecasting Climate and Climatic Analysis 205 Appendix A Tables 227 Appendix В Extra Work Maps 253 List of Tables in Appendix A 1 SI (Systeme Internationale) Units Conversion Factors for Commonly Used Units Trigonometric Functions Squares and Square Roots Nautical Miles, Statute Miles, and Kilometers Length of the Daylight Period Pressure and Density in the Atmosphere Standard Pressure Heights Relative Humidity Temperature of Dew Point Saturation Mixing Ratios (r w ) Saturation Absolute Humidities (d s ) (grains) Saturation Absolute Humidities (d s ) (grams) The Radar Summary Chart Cloud Coverage (N) and (N h ) Wind Speed (ff) Horizontal Visibility (VV) Present Weather (WW) Past Weather (W) Height of Clouds (h) Alphabetical List of Cloud Abbreviations Low Clouds (C L ) Middle Clouds (C M ) High Clouds (C H ) Pressure Tendency (a) Time of Precipitation (R t ) Wind-Chill Equivalent Temperatures Selected Climate Data Hurricanes Andrew and Bob Data 254 Extra Work Maps in Appendix В U.S. Weather Stations World Maps Atlantic Hurricane Tracking Charts Pacific Hurricane Tracking Charts v

DETAILED CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction to Weather and Isopeths 1 1.1 Abstract isopleth 5 1.2 Abstract isopleth 5 1.3 Abstract isopleth 6 1.4 Abstract isopleths 6 1.5 Simple isotherms 7 1.

3 DETAILED CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction to Weather and Isopeths Abstract isopleth Abstract isopleth Abstract isopleth Abstract isopleths Simple isotherms Isotherms Outdoor weather elements: "Guesstimation" 9 Review and Study Questions 11 Chapter 2 The Atmosphere Vertical temperature profile Homosphere and heterosphere Vertical profile of pressure and density 17 Review and Study Questions 19 Chapter 3 Earth-Sun Relationships Important reference points on the earth Locating sun's rays and the seasons North pole view of sun's rays and the seasons Calculation of altitude angles Altitude angles for 43 N Annual range of altitude angles Calculations of latitude from sun angles 27 Review and Study Questions 29 Chapter 4 Solar Radiation Calculating insolation values and drawing insolation curves (annual) Calculating insolation values and drawing insolation curves (diurnal) Drawing annual insolation curves (relative) Drawing diurnal insolation curves (relative) Drawing annual insolation curves (relative) The radiation budget (incoming) Roof overhang and solar energy 37 Review and Study Questions 39 vi

Detailed Table of Contents vii Chapter 5 Temperature 43 5.1 Temperature curves for mid-latitudes 45 5.2 Temperature curves for tropical locations 46 5.

4 Detailed Table of Contents vii Chapter 5 Temperature Temperature curves for mid-latitudes Temperature curves for tropical locations Average temperature curves versus actual data Nine insolation and temperature curves for various locations (annual and diurnal) Isotherms for observed temperatures Isotherms for max and min temperatures Isotherms for diurnal range of temperature Heating degree-day and cooling degree-day Vertical temperature profile and the observed lapse rate Calculations of observed lapse rates Temperature conversions Temperature conversion per 10 C Temperature conversion per 10 F Common temperature values 58 Review and Study Questions 59 Chapter 6 Air Pressure Average sea level values Typical range of sea level values Standard Pressure Surface data Define an upper air Standard Pressure Surface Upper air pressure Coding and decoding pressure values Pressure conversions Drawing isobars The pressure gradient Pressure tendency and net change Determining storm tracks The rate of movement of pressure systems Depicting generalized pressure fields Graphing global pressure for selected latitudes and longitudes 78 Review and Study Questions 79 Chapter 7 Wind and the Global Circulation Land and sea breezes Mountain and valley breezes Weather map wind symbols Veering and backing winds Wind frequency diagrams (wind roses) Cyclonic and anticyclonic wind patterns U.S. wind flow from isobars Wind chill equivalent temperatures 87

viii Detailed Table of Contents 7.9 Wind chill factor calculations 87 7.10 Wind speed and the pressure gradient 88 7.11 Global wind and pressure patterns and the tricellular model 89 7.

5 viii Detailed Table of Contents 7.9 Wind chill factor calculations Wind speed and the pressure gradient Global wind and pressure patterns and the tricellular model Hypothetical continents wind and pressure Wind speed conversions 91 Review and Study Questions 93 Chapter 8 Moisture in the Atmosphere 8.1 Water phase changes The water cycle Water vapor-relative humidity calculations Water vapor-relative humidity calculations Water vapor-relative humidity calculations Water vapor-relative humidity calculations Psychometric calculations Comparing moisture concepts Vapor pressure problem Drawing curve of saturation mixing ratios Word problem Word problem Word problem Cloud classification Weather map cloud symbols Cloud observations for one-week period Drawing precipitation curves for selected stations Isotherms for the temperature-dew point spread Correlation of precipitation with the temperature-dew point spread Study of the global precipitation pattern The rain gauge The Radar Summary Chart The Temperature-Humidity Index 119 Review and Study Questions 121 Chapter 9 Atmospheric Stability and Adiabatics 9.1 Graphing lapse rates and determining stability Graphing lapse rates and determining stability Graphing lapse rates and determining stability Word problem (conditional instability) Word problem (cloud base) Word problem (conditional instability) Word problem (absolute instability) Word problem (orographic foehn) Word problem (water vapor variation) 134 Review and Study Questions 135

Detailed Table of Contents ix Chapter 10 Air Masses, Fronts, and Severe Storms 137 10.1 Summary of air masses 141 10.2 Weather map symbols for fronts 141 10.3 Frontogenesis 142 10.

6 Detailed Table of Contents ix Chapter 10 Air Masses, Fronts, and Severe Storms Summary of air masses Weather map symbols for fronts Frontogenesis Frontal advance and occlusion Cross-sectional views of fronts Air mass source regions Rain/snow regions of cumulonimbus cloud Stages of thunderstorm clouds: wind flow Stages of thunderstorm clouds: electrical U.S. frequencies of severe storms Global frequencies of severe storms Other forms of severe weather Hurricane tracking: Camille and Carol Hurricane tracking: Iniki and Georgette 153 Review and Study Questions 159 Chapter 11 The Weather Map 11.1 Plotting weather data Interpreting weather map symbols Decoding and plotting teletype transmissions 11.4 Decoding and plotting teletype transmissions 11.5 Common weather symbols More Present Weather symbols Cloud symbols Conversions and distances Reading weather facts from the weather map Conversion of GMT to standard time Conversion of standard time to GMT 174 Review and Study Questions Chapter 12 Weather Analysis and Forecasting Two simple maps for analysis 179 Weather map for analysis 181 Weather map for analysis 183 Weather map for analysis 185 Weather map for analysis 187 Evaluation of data on a weather map Evaluation of data on a weather map Forecasting positions of fronts Question about a stationary front 199 Question on use of 500-millibar chart Question on another 500-millibar chart

x Detailed Table of Contents 12.12 Forecasting based on storm track 201 12.

7 x Detailed Table of Contents Forecasting based on storm track Forecasting based on two different projections of storm tracks' 202 Review and Study Questions 203 Chapter 13 Climate and Climatic Analysis Optional exercise: Making your own Koppen Classification Sector Graphs Classification of six climate stations Questions about and plotting above stations Classification of six more climate stations Questions about and plotting above stations Classification of 15 or more climate stations Plotting above 15 stations Questions about above 15 stations Questions and "mental cruises" based on any map of world climate regions Creating a world map of arid regions 223 Review and Study Questions 227

Chapter 3: Weather Map. Weather Maps. The Station Model. Weather Map on 7/7/2005 4/29/2011

Chapter 3: Weather Map. Weather Maps. The Station Model. Weather Map on 7/7/2005 4/29/2011 Chapter 3: Weather Map Weather Maps Many variables are needed to described weather conditions. Local weathers are affected by weather pattern. We need to see all the numbers describing weathers at many