EARTH'S DYNAMIC SYSTEMS EIGHTH EDITION

Transcription

1 EARTH'S DYNAMIC SYSTEMS EIGHTH EDITION W. Kenneth Hamblin Eric H. Christiansen Brigham Young University Provo, Utah

2 CONTENTS Preface xiii Acknowledgements To the Student xvii xv Planet Earth 1 Introduction to Geology 2 Earth Compared with Other Planets 3 Earth's Outermost Layers 9 Earth's Internal Structure 12 Major Features of the Continents 14 Major Features of the Ocean Basins 19 The Ecosphere A Model of Planet Earth 22 Geologic Systems 24 Geologic Systems 26 Direction of Change in Geologic Systems 28 The Hydrologic System 32 The Tectonic System 36 Gravity and Isostasy 43 Minerals 46 Matter 48 The Nature of Minerals 52 The Growth and Destruction of Minerals 60 Silicate Minerals 62 Rock-Forming Minerals 63 Igneous Rocks 72 Nature of Igneous Rocks 74 Texture of Igneous Rocks 77 Kinds of Igneous Rocks 79 Extrusive Rock Bodies 83 Intrusive Rock Bodies 90 The Origin and Differentiation of Magma 97 Igneous Rocks and Plate Tectonics 100

3 Sedimentary Rocks 104 Nature of Sedimentary Rocks 106 Types of Sedimentary Rocks 108 Sedimentary Structures 111 Origin of Sedimentary Rocks 115 Stratigraphic Sequences 124 Significance of Sedimentary Rocks 125 Sedimentary Rocks and Plate Tectonics 127 Metamorphic Rocks 130 The Nature of Metamorphic Rocks 132 Origin of Metamorphic Rocks 134 Texture of Metamorphic Rocks 138 Kinds of Metamorphic Rocks 140 Regional Metamorphic Zones 145 Metamorphic Rocks and Plate Tectonics 147 Structure of Rock Bodies 150 Evidence of Crustal Deformation 152 Dip and Strike 153 Folds 155 Faults 158 Joints 165 Causes of Rock Deformation 166 Geologic Time 170 The Discovery of Time 172 Unconformities 174 The Standard Geologic Column 180 Radiometric Measurements of Time 184 Other Methods to Measure Absolute Time 190 Calibration of the Geologic Time Scale 192 Deciphering Geologic History 193 Magnitude of Geologic Time 194

4 The Atmosphere-Ocean System 198 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 200 Energy and Motion of the Atmosphere 204 Composition and Structure of the Oceans 209 Energy and Motion of the Oceans 212 Climate Zones 218 Climate Change 220 Weathering 226 Physical Weathering 229 Chemical Weathering 232 Weathering of Major Rock Types 237 Products of Weathering 239 Climate and Weathering 247 Rates of Weathering 249 Slope Systems 252 Factors Influencing Mass Movement 254 Types of Mass Movement 257 Slope Systems 270 River Systems 272 Importance of Running Water 274 Major Characteristics of a River System 275 Dynamics of Stream Flow 277 Equilibrium in River Systems 280 Processes of Stream Erosion 284 Processes of Stream Deposition 292 Floods 300 River Systems and Plate Tectonics 304

5 Groundwater Systems 308 Porosity and Permeability 310 The Water Table 311 Movement of Groundwater 314 Natural and Artificial Discharge 314 Artesian Water 318 Thermal Springs and Geysers 321 Erosion by Groundwater 323 Deposition by Groundwater 330 Groundwater Resources 333 Alteration of Groundwater Systems 335 Glacier Systems 342 Glacial Systems 344 Valley Glacier Systems 352 Continental Glacier Systems 355 Pleistocene Glaciation 366 Records of Pre-Pleistocene Glaciation 380 Causes of Glaciation 381 Shoreline Systems 386 Waves 388 Longshore Drift 391 Erosion Along Coasts 393 Deposition Along Coasts 397 Evolution of Shorelines 401 Reefs 406 Types of Coasts 410 Tides 415 Tsunamis 416 Eolian Systems 420 Wind as a Geologic Agent 422 Wind Erosion 423 Transportation of Sediment by Wind 426 Migration of Sand Dunes 430 Types of Sand Dunes 432 Loess 436 Desertification 439

6 Plate Tectonics 442 Continental Drift 444 Development of the Theory of Plate Tectonics 450 Plate Geography 457 Plate Boundaries 459 Plate Motion 463 Rates of Plate Motion 464 The Driving Mechanism 466 Seismicity and Earth's Interior 470 Characteristics of Earthquakes 472 Earthquake Hazards 476 Earthquake Prediction 481 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 484 Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 486 Seismic Wave Velocity Discontinuities 488 Convection Inside Earth 492 Divergent Plate Boundaries 496 Midocean Ridges 498 Structure and Composition of the Oceanic Lithosphere 507 Origin and Evolution of the Oceanic Crust 517 Continental Rifts 521 History of Plate Movement 528 Transform Plate Boundaries 532 Characteristics of Transform Plate Boundaries 534 Oceanic Transforms and Fracture Zones 537 Continental Transform Faults 544 Earthquakes at Transform Boundaries 549 Magmatism and Metamorphism 550

7 Convergent Plate Boundaries 552 Types of Convergent Boundaries 554 Factors Influencing the Nature of Convergent Boundaries 557 Seismicity at Convergent Boundaries 560 Deformation at Convergent Boundaries 562 Magmatism at Convergent Boundaries 570 Volcanic Eruptions at Convergent Boundaries 573 Metamorphism at Convergent Boundaries 579 Formation of Continental Crust 580 Hotspots and Mantle Plumes 584 Characteristics of Hotspots 586 Generation of Magma in Mantle Plumes 592 Mantle Plumes Beneath the Ocean Floor 593 Mantle Plumes Beneath Continents 604 Plumes, Climate Change, and Extinctions 609 Tectonics and Landscapes 612 Factors Influencing Landscapes 614 Evolution of Shields 618 Stable Platforms 624 Folded Mountain Belts 630 Continental Rifts 633 Flood Basalts: Plains and Plateaus 636 Magmatic Arcs 639 Earth's Resources 642 Mineral Resources 644 Processes that Form Mineral Deposits 645 Energy Resources 652 Plate Tectonic Controls on Mineral Resources 665 Limits to Growth and Consumption 668 Easter Island, Earth Island 670

8 Other Planets 674 The Solar System 676 The Inner Solar System 678 The Outer Solar System 691 Asteroids and Comets 701 Origin of the Solar System 702 Glossary 711 Index 732