Introduction to Optics

Transcription

1 Second Edition Introduction to Optics FRANK L. PEDROTTI, S.J. Marquette University Milwaukee, Wisconsin Vatican Radio, Rome LENO S. PEDROTTI Center for Occupational Research and Development Waco, Texas Emeritus Professor of Physics Air Force Institute of Technology Dayton, Ohio Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632

2 List of Tables xv Physical Constants xvii Preface xix 1 Nature of Light I Introduction 1 A Brief History 2 Problems 6 References 7 2 Production and Measurement of Light 8 Introduction Electromagnetic Spectrum Radiometry Photometry Blackbody Radiation 75 *2-5 Sources of Optical Radiation 17 *2-6 Detectors of Radiation 23 Problems 28 References 29

3 3 Geometrical Optics 30 Introduction Huygens' Principle Fermat's Principle Principle of Reversibility Reflection in Plane Mirrors Refraction through Plane Surfaces Imaging by an Optical System Reflection at a Spherical Surface Refraction at a Spherical Surface Thin Lenses Vergence and Refractive Power Newtonian Equation for the Thin Lens 57 Problems 58 References 60 4 Matrix Methods in Paraxial Optics 62 Introduction The Thick Lens The Matrix Method The Translation Matrix The Refraction Matrix The Reflection Matrix Thick-Lens and Thin-Lens Matrices System Ray-Transfer Matrix Significance of System Matrix Elements Location of Cardinal Points for an Optical System Examples Using the System Matrix and Cardinal Points 77 *4-ll Ray Tracing 79 Problems 84 References 86 5 Aberration Theory 87 Introduction Ray and Wave Aberrations 88 *5-2 Third-Order Treatment of Refraction at a Spherical Interface Spherical Aberration Coma Astigmatism and Curvature of Field Distortion Chromatic Aberration 102 Problems 106 References 107 viii

4 О Optical Instrumentation 109 Introduction Stops, Pupils, and Windows Prisms The Camera Simple Magnifiers and Eyepieces Microscopes Telescopes 139 Problems 146 References Optics of the Eye 151 Introduction Biological Structure of the Eye Optical Representation of the Eye Functions of the Eye Errors of Refraction and Their Correction 158 *7-5 Laser Therapy for Ocular Defects 163 Problems 169 References Wave Equations 172 Introduction One-Dimensional Wave Equation Harmonic Waves Complex Numbers Harmonic Waves as Complex Numbers Plane Waves Spherical Waves Electromagnetic Waves 181 *8-8 Doppler Effect 183 Problems 184 References Superposition of Waves 187 Introduction Superposition Principle Superposition of Waves of the Same Frequency 188 ~ Random and Coherent Sources 191 ч 9-4 Standing Waves Phase and Group Velocities 194 \'- Problems 197 References 199

5 I 0 Interference of Light 200 Introduction Two-Beam Interference Young's Double-Slit Experiment Double-Slit Interference with Virtual Sources Interference in Dielectric Films Fringes of Equal Thickness Newton's Rings 277 *10-7 Film-Thickness Measurement by Interference 279 Problems 227 References 223 II Optical Interferometry 224 Introduction *ll-4 *ll-5 *ll-6 *ll-7 *ll-8 *ll-9 The Michelson Interferometer 225 Applications of the Michelson Interferometer 228 Variations of the Michelson Interferometer 230 Stokes Relations 232 Multiple-Beam Interference in a Parallel Plate 233 Fabry-Perot Interferometer 236 Fringe Profiles: The Airy Function 238 Resolving Power 239 Free Spectral Range 242 Problems 244 References Coherence 247 Introduction Fourier Analysis Fourier Analysis of a Finite Harmonic Wave Train Temporal Coherence and Natural Line Width 253 *12-4 Partial Coherence Spatial Coherence Spatial Coherence Width 260 Problems 263 References Holography 266 Introduction Conventional versus Holographic Photography Hologram of a Point Source Hologram of an Extended Object Hologram Properties White-Light Holograms 273 x

6 13-6 Other Applications of Holography 274 Problems 277 References 279 A 4 Matrix Treatment of Polarization 280 Introduction Mathematical Representation of Polarized Light: Jones Vectors Mathematical Representation of Polarizers: Jones Matrices 289 Problems 295 References Production of Polarized Light 298 Introduction Dichroism: Polarization by Selective Absorption Polarization by Reflection from Dielectric Surfaces Polarization by Scattering Birefringence: Polarization with Two Refractive Indices Double Refraction 310 *15-6 Optical Activity 313 *15-7 Photoelasticity 317 Problems 319 References Fraunhofer Diffraction Introduction 323 Diffraction from a Single Slit 324 Beam Spreading 329 Rectangular and Circular Apertures 330 Resolution 335 Double-Slit Diffraction 338 Diffraction from Many Slits 341 Problems 346 References The Diffraction Grating 349 Introduction The Grating Equation Free Spectral Range of a Grating Dispersion of a Grating Resolution of a Grating 353 *17-5 Types of Gratings 355 xi

7 *17-6 Blazed Gratings 356 *17-7 Grating Replicas 359 *17-8 Interference Gratings 359 *17-9 Grating Instruments 361 Problems 363 References Fresnel Diffraction 366 Introduction Fresnel-Kirchhoff Diffraction Integral Criterion for Fresnel Diffraction The Obliquity Factor Fresnel Diffraction from Circular Apertures Phase Shift of the Diffracted Light The Fresnel Zone Plate Fresnel Diffraction from Apertures with Rectangular Symmetry The Cornu Spiral Applications of the Cornu Spiral Babinet's Principle 388 Problems 388 References Theory of Multilayer Films 391 Introduction Transfer Matrix Reflectance at Normal Incidence Two-Layer Antireflecting Films Three-Layer Antireflecting Films High-Reflectance Layers 402 Problems 405 References Fresnel Equations *20-5 *20-6 *20-7 Introduction 407 The Fresnel Equations 407 External and Internal Reflections Phase Changes on Reflection 414 Conservation of Energy 417 Evanescent Waves 419 Complex Refractive Index 420 Reflection from Metals 422 Problems 423 References 425 xii

8 21 Laser Basics 426 Introduction Einstein's Quantum Theory of Radiation Essential Elements of a Laser Simplified Description of Laser Operation Characteristics of Laser Light Laser Types and Parameters 451 Problems 453 References Characteristics of Laser Beams 456 Introduction Three-Dimensional Wave Equation and Electromagnetic Waves Phase Variation of Spherical Waves Along a Transverse Plane Basis for Defining Laser-Beam Mode Structures Gaussian Beam Solution for Lasers Spot Size and Radius of Curvature of a Gaussian Beam Laser Propagation through Arbitrary Optical Systems 468 *22-7 Higher-Order Gaussian Beams 476 Problems 480 References Laser Applications 484 Introduction Lasers and Interaction Lasers and Information More Recent Developments 496 Problems 498 References Fiber Optics Introduction 507 Applications 507 Communications System Overview 502 Bandwidth and Data Rate 504 Optics of Propagation 505 Allowed Modes 507 Attenuation 509 Distortion 572 Problems 579 References 527

9 25 Fourier Optics 522 Introduction Optical Data Imaging and Processing Fourier-Transform Spectroscopy 536 Problems 539 References Nonlinear Optics and the Modulation of Light 541 Introduction The Nonlinear Medium Second Harmonic Generation Frequency Mixing The Pockels Effect The Kerr Effect The Faraday Effect The Acousto-Optic Effect Nonlinear Optical Phase Conjugation 559 Problems 565 References Optical Properties of Materials 568 Introduction Л Polarization of a Dielectric Medium Propagation of Light Waves in a Dielectric Conduction Current in a Metal Propagation of Light Waves in a Metal Skin Depth Plasma Frequency 578 Problems 579 References 580 Suggestions for Further Reading 581 Articles on Optics from Scientific American 581 Answers to Selected Problems 585 Index 597 xiv