Optical Metrology. Third Edition. Kjell J. Gasvik Spectra Vision AS, Trondheim, Norway JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD

Transcription

1 2008 AGI-Information Management Consultants May be used for personal purporses only or by libraries associated to dandelon.com network. Optical Metrology Third Edition Kjell J. Gasvik Spectra Vision AS, Trondheim, Norway JOHN WILEY & SONS, LTD

2 Contents Preface to the Third Edition xi 1 Basics Introduction Wave Motion. The Electromagnetic Spectrum The Plane Wave. Light Rays Phase Difference Complex Notation. Complex Amplitude Oblique Incidence of A Plane Wave The Spherical Wave The Intensity Geometrical Optics The Simple Convex (Positive) Lens A Plane-Wave Set-Up 11 2 Gaussian Optics Introduction * Refraction at a Spherical Surface Examples The General Image-Forming System The Image-Formation Process Reflection at a Spherical Surface Aspheric Lenses Stops and Apertures Lens Aberrations. Computer Lens Design Imaging and The Lens Formula Standard Optical Systems Afocal Systems. The Telescope The Simple Magnifier The Microscope 34

3 vi CONTENTS 3 Interference Introduction General Description. _ Coherence Interference between two Plane Waves Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) Interference between other Waves Interferometry Wavefront Division Amplitude Division The Dual-Frequency Michelson Interferometer Heterodyne (Homodyne) Detection Spatial and Temporal Coherence Optical Coherence Tomography 61 4 Diffraction Introduction Diffraction from a Single Slit Diffraction from a Grating The Grating Equation. Amplitude Transmittance The Spatial Frequency Spectrum Fourier Optics Optical Filtering Practical Filtering Set-Ups Physical Optics Description of Image Formation The Coherent Transfer Function The Incoherent Transfer Function The Depth of Focus The Phase-Modulated Sinusoidal Grating 89 5 Light Sources and Detectors Introduction Radiometry. Photometry Lambertian Surface Blackbody Radiator Examples Incoherent Light Sources Coherent Light Sources Stimulated Emission Gas Lasers Liquid Lasers Semiconductor Diode Lasers. Light Emitting Diodes Solid-State Lasers Other Lasers 119

4 CONTENTS vii Enhancements of Laser Operation Applications The Coherence Length of a Laser Hologram Recording Media Silver Halide Emulsions Thermoplastic Film Photopolymer Materials Photoelectric Detectors Photoconductors Photodiodes The CCD Camera Operating Principles Responsitivity Sampling Ideal Sampling Non-Ideal Sampling Aliasing Signal Transfer Holography Introduction The Holographic Process An Alternative Description Uncollimated Reference and Reconstruction Waves Diffraction Efficiency. The Phase Hologram Volume Holograms 154' 6.7 Stability Requirements \ Holographic Interferometry Double-Exposure Interferometry Real-Time Interferometry Analysis of Interferograms Localization of Interference Fringes Holographic Vibration Analysis Holographic Interferometry of Transparent Objects Moire Methods. Triangulation Introduction Sinusoidal Gratings Moir6 Between Two Angularly Displaced Gratings Measurement of In-Plane Deformation and Strains Methods for Increasing the Sensitivity 177

5 viii CONTENTS 7.5 Measurement of Out-Of-Plane Deformations. Contouring Shadow Moire" Projected Fringes Vibration Analysis Moire Technique by Means of Digital Image Processing Reflection Moire Triangulation Speckle Methods Introduction The Speckle Effect Speckle Size Speckle Photography The Fourier Fringe Method The Young Fringe Method Speckle Correlation Speckle-Shearing Interferometry White-Light Speckle Photography Photoelasticity and Polarized Light Introduction Polarized Light Polarizing Filters The Linear Polarizer Retarders Unpolarized Light Reflection and Refraction at an Interface The Jones Matrix Formalism of Polarized Light Photoelasticity Introduction The Plane Polariscope The Circular Polariscope Detection of Isochromatics of Fractional Order. Compensation Holographic Photoelasticity Three-Dimensional Photoelasticity Introduction The Frozen Stress Method The Scattered Light Method Ellipsometry Digital Image Processing Introduction The Frame Grabber 249

6 CONTENTS ix 10.3 Digital Image Representation Camera Calibration Lens Distortion Perspective Transformations Image Processing Contrast Stretching Neighbourhood Operations. Convolution Noise Suppression Edge Detection The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and the FFT Fringe Analysis Introduction Intensity-Based Analysis Methods Introduction Prior Knowledge Fringe Tracking and Thinning Fringe Location by Sub-Pixel Accuracy Phase-Measurement Interferometry Introduction Principles of TPMI Means of Phase Modulation Different Techniques Errors in TPMI Measurements Spatial Phase-Measurement Methods Multichannel Interferometer Errors in Multichannel Interferometers Spatial-Carrier Phase-Measurement Method Errors in the Fourier Transform Method Space Domain \ Phase Unwrapping Introduction Phase-Unwrapping Techniques Path-Dependent Methods Path-Independent Methods, Temporal Phase Unwrapping Computerized Optical Processes Introduction TV Holography (ESPI) Digital Holography Digital Speckle Photography Fibre Optics in Metrology Introduction Light Propagation through Optical Fibres Attenuation and Dispersion 310

7 x CONTENTS 13.4 Different Types of Fibres Fibre-Optic Sensors Fibre-Bragg Sensors 318 Appendices A. Complex Numbers 325 B. Fourier Optics 327 B.I The Fourier Transform 327 B.2 Some Functions and Their Transforms 329 B.3 Some Implications 332 C. Fourier Series 335 D. The Least-Squares Error Method 339 E. Semiconductor Devices 343 References and Further Reading 347 Index 355