Plant cell wall (Lecture 12)
|
|
- Erick Griffith
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Plant cell wall (Lecture 12) Cell walls consist of 3 types of layers Middle lamella: This is the first layer formed during cell division. It makes up the outer wall of the cell and is shared by adjacent cells. It is composed of pectic compounds and protein. Primary wall: This is formed after the middle lamella and consists of a rigid skeleton of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a gel-like matrix composed of : pectic compounds, hemicellulose, and glycoproteins. Secondary wall: formed after cell enlargement is completed. The secondary wall is extremely rigid and provides compression strength. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The secondary wall is often layered. Primary/secondary cell wall The plant cell wall is a dynamic compartment that changes throughout the life of the cell. The new primary cell wall is born in the cell plate during cell division and rapidly increases in surface area during cell expansion. The middle lamella forms the interface between the primary walls of neighboring cells. At differentiation, many cells elaborate within the primary wall a secondary cell wall. The plant cell wall is a highly organized composite of many different polysaccharides, proteins, and aromatic substances.
2 Specialized functions of the cell wall 1.Structural: 1.Fibers 2.Cross-linked matrix 2.Molecules affecting developmental pattern 3.Molecules defining cell s position within the plant. 4.Molecules of cell-cell and cell-nucleus communication 5.Defense against pathogens (impregnation with lignin) 6.Recognition of symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria 7.Recognition of self Macromolecules of the cell wall 1.Cellulose the most abundant plant polysacharide (15-30% of the dry mass of the cell wall) Microfibrills several dozen of (1à4) b-d-glucan chains Cellulose polymers associate through H-bonds. The H-bonding of many cellulose molecules to each other results in the formation of micro fibers and the micro fibers can interact to form fibers. Certain cells, like those in cotton ovules, can grow cellulose fibers of enormous lengths. 2. Callose Differ from cellulose in consisting of (1à3) b-d-glucan chains that can form helical duplexes. Callose is made in a few cells at specific stages of development (growing pollen tubes, cell plates of dividing cells).
3 It is made in response to wounding or to penetration by invading fungal hyphae. 3. Pectic acid - polymer of around 100 galacturonic acid molecules - very hydrophilic and soluble - become very hydrated - forms salts and salt bridges with Ca++ and Mg++ that are insoluble gels - major component of middle lamella but also found in primary walls galacturonic acid Pectic acid with salt bridges 4. Pectin - polymer of around 200 galacturonic acid molecules - many of the carboxyl groups are methylated (COOCH3) - less hydrated then pectic acid but soluble in hot water - another major component of middle lamella but also found in primary walls Cross-linking glycans Make hydrogen-bond to cellulose. XyGs xyloglucans GAXs - glucuronoarabinoxylans Macromolecules of the cell wall 1.Structural proteins of the cell wall i. Hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGPs) Extensin
4 ii. Proline-rich glycoproteins (PRGPs) iii. Glycine-rich proteins (GRPs) iv. AGPs (mainly consist of carbohydrate) v. All mrnas for cell wall proteins encode signal peptides that target the proteins to the secretory pathway. Like the cell wall carbohydrates, glycoproteins are hydrophilic and can form H-bonds and salt bridges with cell wall polysaccharides. In addition to hydroxyproline, cell wall proteins are often high in the amino acids proline and lysine. The NH3+ on lysine provides positive charges along the peptide backbone. The positive charges residues can associate with negatively charged groups on pectic acids, etc. In addition to electrostatic interactions, H-bonds also form between amino acid side chains and cell wall carbohydrates. Another type of structural cell wall protein, called extensin, can form covalent bonds with other extensin proteins through the amino acid tyrosine. In extensin, the tyrosines are evenly spaced and when they bond with tyrosine on another extensin molecule, they can wrap around other cell wall constituents "knitting" the wall together. The amount of extensin changes with development. Cells that have thick, hard walls are often rich in extensin (i.e., sclerids and fibers). The amount of extensin produced is dependent on mechanical wounding, infection and these responses are mediated by plant hormones. Cell walls also contain functional proteins. Enzymatic activities in cell walls include: Oxidative enzymes - peroxidases Hydrolytic enzymes - pectinases, cellulases "Expansins" - enzymes that catalyze cell wall "creep" activity General functions of cell wall enzymes include: protection against pathogens, cell expansion, cell wall maturation. Cell wall architecture The primary cell wall is made up of two, sometimes three, structurally independent but interacting networks. The framework of cellulose and crosslinking glycans lies embedded in a second network of matrix pectic polysaccharides.
5 The third independent network consists of the structural proteins or phenylpropanoid network. Type I cell wall. The walls of most dicots and the noncommelinoid monocots contain about equal amounts of XyGs and cellulose Type II cell walls Occurs in commelinoid monocots. Instead of XyG the principal polymers are GAXs XyGs xyloglucans GAXs - glucuronoarabinoxylans Cell expansion involves extensive changes in the mass and composition of the cell wall. During elongation or expansion, existing cell wall architecture must change to incorporate new material, increasing the surface area of the cell and inducing water uptake by the protoplast. Wall loosening and continued deposition of new material - primary determinant of rates of cell expansion. The wall-localized event, called stress relaxation, serves as the fundamental difference between growing and nongrowing cells. The yield threshold, defines the pressure potential that must be exceeded before expansion can occur. Postulates that auxin-dependent acidification of the cell wall promotes wall extensibility and cell growth. The acid-growth proposes that auxin activates a plasma-membrane proton pump, which acidifies the cell wall. The low ph activates apoplast-localized growth-specific hydrolases, which cleave the load-bearing bonds that tether cellulose microfibrils to other polysaccharides. Cleavage of these bonds results in loosening of the cell wall, and the water potential difference causes uptake of water. Relaxation of the wall passively leads to an increase in cell size. Enzymes with wall-loosening acitivities Xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET) transglycosylation of XyG in which one chain of XyG is cleaved and reattached to the nonreducing terminus of another XyG chain. Other proteins catalyze wall extension in vitro without any detectable hydrolytic or tansglycolytic events. Called expansins, these proteins probably catalyze breakage of hydrogen bonds between cellulose and the load-bearing cross-linking glycans. Such an activity could disrupt the tethering of cellulose. Expansins are the only proteins shown to produce wall expansion in vitro. They appear ubiquitous in growing tissues of all flowering plants, and they appear to break hydrogen bonds between cellulose and cross-linking glycans. Cell wall loosening can occur by at least 3 mechanisms:
6 1) Wall acidification - H+ATPase in plasma membrane 'pumps" H+ from cytoplasm into cell wall. The ph of the wall drops and carboxylic acids become protonated and 'salt bridges" are broken. 2) In addition, the enzyme "expansin" is activated and causes cellulose micro fibers to slip (mechanism of expansin action is unknown). This results in cell wall "creep". 3) Hydrolytic enzymes like cellulase and pectinase, "degrade" cell walls by breaking polymers into smaller subunits or by breaking crosslinks. Cell differentiation Within a single wall there are zones of different architectures the middle lamella, plasmodesmata, thickenings, channels, pitfields, and the cell corners. The size of such microdomains in the wall, compared with the size of the polymers that must fit in these domains, implies that mechanisms must exist for packaging and positioning of large molecules. Changes of cell wall architecture are involved in fruit-ripening Most fruits in which the pericarp or endocarp softens during ripening develop thickened primary walls (pectic substances) The texture of the ripe fruit pulp is governed by the extent of wall degradation and loss of cell-cell adhesion. Pectin often constitute more than 50% of the fruit wall. The softening process in tomato parenhyma tissue is associated with loss of methyl esters of HGA (pectic polysaccharide homogalacturonan). The deesterified HGA backbone then is susceptible to the activity of Pgase (peptidoglutaminase).pgase solubilizes pectins from the cell wall, facilitating progressive hydrolysis. Pectin modification within the wall during ripening is a tightly regulated process. Using antisense inhibition of PGase, researchers were able almost completely preventing pectic depolymerization in transgenic fruit. However, little or no reduction in softening was achieved. For many cells, the differentiation process is associated with formation of a secondary wall. When cells stop growing, the wall is crosslinked into its ultimate shape. At that point, deposition of the secondary wall begins. Elaborate specialization of secondary walls
7 Cotton fiber 98% cellulose at maturity. May contain additional noncellulosic polysaccharides, proteins, and aromatic substances such as lignin. The walls of many cells function long after the cells that produced them are dead. Secondary cell walls of the cotyledon and the endosperm of the developing seeds contain little or no cellulose. These secondary walls serve two functions: Provide a strong wall to protect the embryo or impose mechanical dormancy; Contain specialized storage carbohydrates that are digested during germination and converted to sucrose for transport to the growing seedling. Approximately 1000 gene products involved in cell wall biosynthesis, assembly, and turnover are known. Arabidopsis mutants with altered carbohydrate components in the primary wall have been detected by gas chromatography of alditol acetates of their neutral sugars. More than three dozen mutants have been classified by mapping to 11 different loci. Mur1 has been identified as a GDP-mannose-4,6-dehydratase; Mur2 as a fucosyltransferase ; Mur4 C-4 epimerase. Rsw1 - prymary wall cellulose synthase. Cell walls as food, feed, and fibers Cell walls directly affect the raw material quality of human and animal food, textiles, wood, and paper and may play a role in human medicine. The food industry uses isolated arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) and pectins as gums and gelling agents. Fungal and bacterial wall hydrolases are used to adjust food textures and states. The cell walls of fruits and vegetables are now recognized as important dietary components and may protect against cancer of the colon, coronary heart disease, diabetes. b-glucans are the causal agents in the ability of oat and barley brans to lower serum cholesterol and reduce the insulin demand of people with diabetes. Some pectins may have antitumor activities, possibly by stimulating immune system. Agricultural researches are investigating particular enzymes involved in cell wall metabolism in hopes of producing crops with desired characteristics by enhancing commercially valuable traits (fiber production in flax, cotton, ramie and sisal). The pulp and paper industry processes trees into cellulose and livestock industry, which depends on the transformation of the cell wall into muscle tissue, are striving to reduce the lignin content in their respective sources of fiber and fodder. Reducing lignin content would reduce organochlorine wastes and cut costs tremendously for the paper industry, which currently uses chemical extractions to purify cellulose from the wood. Lignin-carbohydrate interactions influence the digestibility of forage crops by animals. Hence, the mutants with altered lignin type may yield new forage crops that exhibit greater digestibility with remaining strengthening function of lignin to the water-conducting cells of the plant. Unfortunately, the results of attempts to change only one parameter of wall metabolism are rarely those predicted, because of the complexity of the wall and the ability of plant cells to adapt to change.
8 Summary 1.The primary wall of the cell is extensible but constrains the final size and shape of every cell 2.In some cells, secondary walls are deposited on the inner surface of the primary wall after growth has stopped. 3.Cell wall becomes specialized for the function of the approximately 40 cell types that plants comprise. 4.The cellulose microfibrills form the scaffold of all cell walls and are tethered together by crosslinking glycans; this framework is embedded in a gel of pectic substances. 5. There are two types of primary cell walls: Type I xyloglucan-cellulose networks embedded in pectin-rich matrix that is further cross-linked with a network of structural proteins. Type II have glycoronoarabinoxylan cellulose networks in a relatively pectin-poor matrix that is crosslinked by ferulate esters and aromatic substances. 6.Cellulose microfibrills are synthesized at the surface of the plasma membrane at terminal complexes called particle rosettes. All noncellulosic crosslinking glycans and pectic substances are made at the Golgi apparatus and secreted. 7.All cell wall sugars are synthesized de novo from interconversion of nucleotide sugars 8.Cell enlargement depends on the activities of endoglycosidase, endotransglycosylase, or expansin, or some combination of these; cell shape is largely governed by the pattern of cellulose deposition. 9. Termination of cell growth is accompanied by crosslinking reactions involving proteins and aromatic substances. 10. Transgenic plants with altered cell wall structures will become an important factor in crop and biomass improvement. Part of the material was modified from
9
The Molecules of Cells
The Molecules of Cells I. Introduction A. Most of the world s population cannot digest milk-based foods. 1. These people are lactose intolerant because they lack the enzyme lactase. 2. This illustrates
More informationDisaccharides consist of two monosaccharide monomers covalently linked by a glycosidic bond. They function in sugar transport.
1. The fundamental life processes of plants and animals depend on a variety of chemical reactions that occur in specialized areas of the organism s cells. As a basis for understanding this concept: 1.
More informationCarbon-organic Compounds
Elements in Cells The living substance of cells is made up of cytoplasm and the structures within it. About 96% of cytoplasm and its included structures are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
More informationPlant Polysaccharides BCMB 8020
Plant Polysaccharides BCMB 8020 - overview of plant glycobiology - plant cell walls - types of plant cell wall polysaccharides: structure and biosynthesis - RG-II: a curious case in plant glycobiology
More informationOrganelles and Their Functions
Organelles and Their Functions The study of cell organelles and their functions is a fascinating part of biology. The current article provides a brief description of the structure of organelles and their
More information1.1.2. thebiotutor. AS Biology OCR. Unit F211: Cells, Exchange & Transport. Module 1.2 Cell Membranes. Notes & Questions.
thebiotutor AS Biology OCR Unit F211: Cells, Exchange & Transport Module 1.2 Cell Membranes Notes & Questions Andy Todd 1 Outline the roles of membranes within cells and at the surface of cells. The main
More informationBSC 2010 - Exam I Lectures and Text Pages. The Plasma Membrane Structure and Function. Phospholipids. I. Intro to Biology (2-29) II.
BSC 2010 - Exam I Lectures and Text Pages I. Intro to Biology (2-29) II. Chemistry of Life Chemistry review (30-46) Water (47-57) Carbon (58-67) Macromolecules (68-91) III. Cells and Membranes Cell structure
More informationSix major functions of membrane proteins: Transport Enzymatic activity
CH 7 Membranes Cellular Membranes Phospholipids are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane. Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The fluid mosaic
More informationKeystone Review Practice Test Module A Cells and Cell Processes. 1. Which characteristic is shared by all prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Keystone Review Practice Test Module A Cells and Cell Processes 1. Which characteristic is shared by all prokaryotes and eukaryotes? a. Ability to store hereditary information b. Use of organelles to control
More informationChapter 3 Molecules of Cells
Bio 100 Molecules of cells 1 Chapter 3 Molecules of Cells Compounds containing carbon are called organic compounds Molecules such as methane that are only composed of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons
More informationI. PLANT CELL, CELL WALL Bot 404--Fall 2004
I. PLANT CELL, CELL WALL Bot 404--Fall 2004 A. Review of General Anatomy 1. Major organs are stem, leaf, root. Flower is usually interpreted as a modified shoot, so sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
More information1. The diagram below represents a biological process
1. The diagram below represents a biological process 5. The chart below indicates the elements contained in four different molecules and the number of atoms of each element in those molecules. Which set
More informationChemical Basis of Life Module A Anchor 2
Chemical Basis of Life Module A Anchor 2 Key Concepts: - Water is a polar molecule. Therefore, it is able to form multiple hydrogen bonds, which account for many of its special properties. - Water s polarity
More informationBiological molecules:
Biological molecules: All are organic (based on carbon). Monomers vs. polymers: Monomers refer to the subunits that, when polymerized, make up a larger polymer. Monomers may function on their own in some
More informationCarbohydrates, proteins and lipids
Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Chapter 3 MACROMOLECULES Macromolecules: polymers with molecular weights >1,000 Functional groups THE FOUR MACROMOLECULES IN LIFE Molecules in living organisms: proteins,
More informationLecture Overview. Hydrogen Bonds. Special Properties of Water Molecules. Universal Solvent. ph Scale Illustrated. special properties of water
Lecture Overview special properties of water > water as a solvent > ph molecules of the cell > properties of carbon > carbohydrates > lipids > proteins > nucleic acids Hydrogen Bonds polarity of water
More informationA disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides. This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage.
CH 5 Structure & Function of Large Molecules: Macromolecules Molecules of Life All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
More informationAnatomy and Physiology Placement Exam 2 Practice with Answers at End!
Anatomy and Physiology Placement Exam 2 Practice with Answers at End! General Chemical Principles 1. bonds are characterized by the sharing of electrons between the participating atoms. a. hydrogen b.
More informationName: Hour: Elements & Macromolecules in Organisms
Name: Hour: Elements & Macromolecules in Organisms Most common elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. These four elements constitute about 95% of your body weight. All compounds
More informationThe Structure and Function of Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids & Phospholipids
The Structure and Function of Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids & Phospholipids The FOUR Classes of Large Biomolecules All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: Carbohydrates
More informationBiochemistry of Cells
Biochemistry of Cells 1 Carbon-based Molecules Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds Carbon
More informationHow To Understand The Chemistry Of Organic Molecules
CHAPTER 3 THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC MOLECULES 3.1 Organic Molecules The chemistry of carbon accounts for the diversity of organic molecules found in living things. Carbon has six electrons, four of which
More informationStructure of proteins
Structure of proteins Primary structure: is amino acids sequence or the covalent structure (50-2500) amino acids M.Wt. of amino acid=110 Dalton (56 110=5610 Dalton). Single chain or more than one polypeptide
More information10.1 The function of Digestion pg. 402
10.1 The function of Digestion pg. 402 Macromolecules and Living Systems The body is made up of more than 60 % water. The water is found in the cells cytoplasm, the interstitial fluid and the blood (5
More informationBIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES: FUNCTIONS, STRUCTURES & TRANSPORT
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES: FUNCTIONS, STRUCTURES & TRANSPORT UNIVERSITY OF PNG SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCES DISCIPLINE OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY BMLS II / B Pharm II / BDS II VJ Temple
More informationLAB 3: DIGESTION OF ORGANIC MACROMOLECULES
LAB 3: DIGESTION OF ORGANIC MACROMOLECULES INTRODUCTION Enzymes are a special class of proteins that lower the activation energy of biological reactions. These biological catalysts change the rate of chemical
More informationThe Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-Dimensional Fluid
The Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-Dimensional Fluid The aqueous environment inside and outside a cell prevents membrane lipids from escaping from bilayer, but nothing stops these molecules from moving about and
More informationhttp://faculty.sau.edu.sa/h.alshehri
http://faculty.sau.edu.sa/h.alshehri Definition: Proteins are macromolecules with a backbone formed by polymerization of amino acids. Proteins carry out a number of functions in living organisms: - They
More informationProteins and Nucleic Acids
Proteins and Nucleic Acids Chapter 5 Macromolecules: Proteins Proteins Most structurally & functionally diverse group of biomolecules. : o Involved in almost everything o Enzymes o Structure (keratin,
More informationChapter 5. The Structure and Function of Macromolecule s
Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecule s Most Macromolecules are polymers: Polymer: (poly: many; mer: part) Large molecules consisting of many identical or similar subunits connected together.
More informationWhat affects an enzyme s activity? General environmental factors, such as temperature and ph. Chemicals that specifically influence the enzyme.
CH s 8-9 Respiration & Metabolism Metabolism A catalyst is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. An enzyme is a catalytic protein. Hydrolysis of sucrose by
More informationThe Cell: Organelle Diagrams
The Cell: Organelle Diagrams Fig 7-4. A prokaryotic cell. Lacking a true nucleus and the other membrane-enclosed organelles of the eukaryotic cell, the prokaryotic cell is much simpler in structure. Only
More informationThe Molecules of Life - Overview. The Molecules of Life. The Molecules of Life. The Molecules of Life
The Molecules of Life - Overview The Molecules of Life The Importance of Carbon Organic Polymers / Monomers Functions of Organic Molecules Origin of Organic Molecules The Molecules of Life Water is the
More informationCh. 8 - The Cell Membrane
Ch. 8 - The Cell Membrane 2007-2008 Phospholipids Phosphate head hydrophilic Fatty acid tails hydrophobic Arranged as a bilayer Phosphate attracted to water Fatty acid repelled by water Aaaah, one of those
More informationBIOLOGICAL MOLECULES OF LIFE
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES OF LIFE C A R B O H Y D R A T E S, L I P I D S, P R O T E I N S, A N D N U C L E I C A C I D S The Academic Support Center @ Daytona State College (Science 115, Page 1 of 29) Carbon
More informationIonization of amino acids
Amino Acids 20 common amino acids there are others found naturally but much less frequently Common structure for amino acid COOH, -NH 2, H and R functional groups all attached to the a carbon Ionization
More informationPRESTWICK ACADEMY NATIONAL 5 BIOLOGY CELL BIOLOGY SUMMARY
Name PRESTWICK ACADEMY NATIONAL 5 BIOLOGY CELL BIOLOGY SUMMARY Cell Structure Identify animal, plant, fungal and bacterial cell ultrastructure and know the structures functions. Plant cell Animal cell
More informationSugars, Starches, and Fibers Are All Carbohydrates
Sugars, Starches, and Fibers Are All Carbohydrates What are carbohydrates? Today's food advertisements call them carbs, but they are not all the same. They are a group of compounds that have some similarities
More informationStudent name ID # 2. (4 pts) What is the terminal electron acceptor in respiration? In photosynthesis? O2, NADP+
1. Membrane transport. A. (4 pts) What ion couples primary and secondary active transport in animal cells? What ion serves the same function in plant cells? Na+, H+ 2. (4 pts) What is the terminal electron
More informationGiven these characteristics of life, which of the following objects is considered a living organism? W. X. Y. Z.
Cell Structure and Organization 1. All living things must possess certain characteristics. They are all composed of one or more cells. They can grow, reproduce, and pass their genes on to their offspring.
More informationNO CALCULATORS OR CELL PHONES ALLOWED
Biol 205 Exam 1 TEST FORM A Spring 2008 NAME Fill out both sides of the Scantron Sheet. On Side 2 be sure to indicate that you have TEST FORM A The answers to Part I should be placed on the SCANTRON SHEET.
More informationElements in Biological Molecules
Chapter 3: Biological Molecules 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic Acids Elements in Biological Molecules Biological macromolecules are made almost entirely of just 6 elements: Carbon (C)
More informationWorking With Enzymes. a world of learning. Introduction. How Enzymes Work. Types and Sources of Enzymes
Working With Enzymes a world of learning Presented by Peter J Ball, Southern Biological. For further information, please contact the author by phone (03) 9877-4597 or by email peterjball@southernbiological.com.
More information3.1 AS Unit: Cells, Exchange and Transport
3.1 AS Unit: Cells, Exchange and Transport Module 1: Cells 1.1.1 Cell Structure Candidates should be able to: (a) state the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, a transmission
More informationCELLS: PLANT CELLS 20 FEBRUARY 2013
CELLS: PLANT CELLS 20 FEBRUARY 2013 Lesson Description In this lesson we will discuss the following: The Cell Theory Terminology Parts of Plant Cells: Organelles Difference between plant and animal cells
More informationThe Huntington Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens. How Sweet It Is: Enzyme Action in Seed Germination
The Huntington Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens How Sweet It Is: Enzyme Action in Seed Germination Overview This experiment is intended to familiarize students with the macromolecule starch,
More information2007 7.013 Problem Set 1 KEY
2007 7.013 Problem Set 1 KEY Due before 5 PM on FRIDAY, February 16, 2007. Turn answers in to the box outside of 68-120. PLEASE WRITE YOUR ANSWERS ON THIS PRINTOUT. 1. Where in a eukaryotic cell do you
More informationChapter 3: Biological Molecules. 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic Acids
Chapter 3: Biological Molecules 1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids 3. Proteins 4. Nucleic Acids Elements in Biological Molecules Biological macromolecules are made almost entirely of just 6 elements: Carbon (C)
More informationEffect Of Amino Acids On Plants
Effect Of Amino Acids On Plants Agriculture production is a very intensive business and is related to better quality and better yield leading to better profitability Every farmer s dreams to achieve this
More informationTodays Outline. Metabolism. Why do cells need energy? How do cells acquire energy? Metabolism. Concepts & Processes. The cells capacity to:
and Work Metabolic Pathways Enzymes Features Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity Membrane Transport Diffusion Osmosis Passive Transport Active Transport Bulk Transport Todays Outline -Releasing Pathways
More informationCells & Cell Organelles
Cells & Cell Organelles The Building Blocks of Life H Biology Types of cells bacteria cells Prokaryote - no organelles Eukaryotes - organelles animal cells plant cells Cell size comparison Animal cell
More informationO 2. What is anaerobic digestion?
What is anaerobic digestion? Microbial degradation of organic material under anaerobic conditions Ubiquitous, naturally-occurring process Occurs in swamps, hydric soils, landfills, digestive tracks of
More information4. Which carbohydrate would you find as part of a molecule of RNA? a. Galactose b. Deoxyribose c. Ribose d. Glucose
1. How is a polymer formed from multiple monomers? a. From the growth of the chain of carbon atoms b. By the removal of an OH group and a hydrogen atom c. By the addition of an OH group and a hydrogen
More informationGENE CLONING AND RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
GENE CLONING AND RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY What is recombinant DNA? DNA from 2 different sources (often from 2 different species) are combined together in vitro. Recombinant DNA forms the basis of cloning.
More information7 Answers to end-of-chapter questions
7 Answers to end-of-chapter questions Multiple choice questions 1 B 2 B 3 A 4 B 5 A 6 D 7 C 8 C 9 B 10 B Structured questions 11 a i Maintenance of a constant internal environment within set limits i Concentration
More informationElements & Macromolecules in Organisms
Name: Date: Per: Table # Elements & Macromolecules in rganisms Most common elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. These four elements constitute about 95% of your body weight.
More informationBiological cell membranes
Unit 14: Cell biology. 14 2 Biological cell membranes The cell surface membrane surrounds the cell and acts as a barrier between the cell s contents and the environment. The cell membrane has multiple
More information8/20/2012 H C OH H R. Proteins
Proteins Rubisco monomer = amino acids 20 different amino acids polymer = polypeptide protein can be one or more polypeptide chains folded & bonded together large & complex 3-D shape hemoglobin Amino acids
More informationLab 3 Organic Molecules of Biological Importance
Name Biology 3 ID Number Lab 3 Organic Molecules of Biological Importance Section 1 - Organic Molecules Section 2 - Functional Groups Section 3 - From Building Blocks to Macromolecules Section 4 - Carbohydrates
More informationEndocrine System: Practice Questions #1
Endocrine System: Practice Questions #1 1. Removing part of gland D would most likely result in A. a decrease in the secretions of other glands B. a decrease in the blood calcium level C. an increase in
More informationLecture 4 Cell Membranes & Organelles
Lecture 4 Cell Membranes & Organelles Structure of Animal Cells The Phospholipid Structure Phospholipid structure Encases all living cells Its basic structure is represented by the fluidmosaic model Phospholipid
More informationChapter 5: The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules
Name Period Concept 5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers 1. The large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes. Name them. 2. Circle the three classes that are called
More informationOrganic Compounds. Essential Questions: What is Organic? What are the 4 major Organic Compounds? How are they made? What are they used for?
Organic Compounds Essential Questions: What is Organic? What are the 4 major Organic Compounds? How are they made? What are they used for? Aristotle: Francesco Redi: What do we already know? Spontaneous
More informationNutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats. Chapter 5 Lesson 2
Nutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats Chapter 5 Lesson 2 Carbohydrates Definition- the starches and sugars found in foods. Carbohydrates are the body s preferred source of energy providing four
More informationHelices From Readily in Biological Structures
The α Helix and the β Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns Although the overall conformation each protein is unique, there are only two different folding patterns are present in all proteins, which are α
More informationCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the body cannot produce sufficient insulin in their pancreas to adequately control the level of glucose in their blood
More informationChapter 2 Chemical Principles
Chapter 2 Chemical Principles I. Chemistry. [Students should read this section on their own]. a. Chemistry is the study of the interactions between atoms and molecules. b. The atom is the smallest unit
More informationProtein Physics. A. V. Finkelstein & O. B. Ptitsyn LECTURE 1
Protein Physics A. V. Finkelstein & O. B. Ptitsyn LECTURE 1 PROTEINS Functions in a Cell MOLECULAR MACHINES BUILDING BLOCKS of a CELL ARMS of a CELL ENZYMES - enzymatic catalysis of biochemical reactions
More informationOrganic Molecules of Life - Exercise 2
Organic Molecules of Life - Exercise 2 Objectives -Know the difference between a reducing sugar and a non-reducing sugar. -Distinguish Monosaccharides from Disaccharides and Polysaccharides -Understand
More information18.2 Protein Structure and Function: An Overview
18.2 Protein Structure and Function: An Overview Protein: A large biological molecule made of many amino acids linked together through peptide bonds. Alpha-amino acid: Compound with an amino group bonded
More informationEnzymes: Practice Questions #1
Enzymes: Practice Questions #1 1. Compound X increases the rate of the reaction below. Compound X is most likely A. an enzyme B. a lipid molecule C. an indicator D. an ADP molecule 2. The equation below
More informationLecture 15: Enzymes & Kinetics Mechanisms
ROLE OF THE TRANSITION STATE Lecture 15: Enzymes & Kinetics Mechanisms Consider the reaction: H-O-H + Cl - H-O δ- H Cl δ- HO - + H-Cl Reactants Transition state Products Margaret A. Daugherty Fall 2004
More informationThe correct answer is d C. Answer c is incorrect. Reliance on the energy produced by others is a characteristic of heterotrophs.
1. An autotroph is an organism that a. extracts energy from organic sources b. converts energy from sunlight into chemical energy c. relies on the energy produced by other organisms as an energy source
More informationAP BIOLOGY CHAPTER 7 Cellular Respiration Outline
AP BIOLOGY CHAPTER 7 Cellular Respiration Outline I. How cells get energy. A. Cellular Respiration 1. Cellular respiration includes the various metabolic pathways that break down carbohydrates and other
More informationHuman Physiology Lab (Biol 236L) Digestive Physiology: Amylase hydrolysis of starch
Human Physiology Lab (Biol 236L) Digestive Physiology: Amylase hydrolysis of starch Introduction Enzymes are proteins composed of amino acid building blocks. Enzymes catalyze or increase the rate of metabolic
More informationBIOMOLECULES. reflect
reflect A child s building blocks are relatively simple structures. When they come together, however, they can form magnifi cent structures. The elaborate city scene to the right is made of small, simple
More informationPreliminary MFM Quiz
Preliminary MFM Quiz 1. The major carrier of chemical energy in all cells is: A) adenosine monophosphate B) adenosine diphosphate C) adenosine trisphosphate D) guanosine trisphosphate E) carbamoyl phosphate
More informationBiology 101 Chapter 4 Cells as the Basic Unit of Life. The Cell Theory Major Contributors: Galileo = first observations made with a microscope
Biology 101 Chapter 4 Cells as the Basic Unit of Life The Cell Theory Major Contributors: Galileo = first observations made with a microscope Robert Hooke = first to observe small compartments in dead
More informationMembrane Structure and Function
Membrane Structure and Function -plasma membrane acts as a barrier between cells and the surrounding. -plasma membrane is selective permeable -consist of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates -major lipids
More informationHow To Understand The Human Body
Introduction to Biology and Chemistry Outline I. Introduction to biology A. Definition of biology - Biology is the study of life. B. Characteristics of Life 1. Form and size are characteristic. e.g. A
More informationChapter 16 The Citric Acid Cycle
Chapter 16 The Citric Acid Cycle Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is not true of the reaction catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex? A) Biotin participates in the decarboxylation.
More informationStructures of Proteins. Primary structure - amino acid sequence
Structures of Proteins Primary structure - amino acid sequence Secondary structure chain of covalently linked amino acids folds into regularly repeating structures. Secondary structure is the result of
More informationThe Organic Chemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
Essential rganic Chemistry Chapter 16 The rganic Chemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins Amino Acids a-amino carboxylic acids. The building blocks from which proteins are made. H 2 N C 2 H Note:
More informationComposition of Grapes
Composition of Grapes By Murli Dharmadhikari Grapes are the most important raw material for making wine. A good understanding of grape composition is essential to understanding the process of winemaking
More informationDigestive System Module 7: Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look
OpenStax-CNX module: m49457 1 Digestive System Module 7: Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look Donna Browne Based on Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look by OpenStax This work is
More informationPlant Responses to Environmental Cues Tropisms, Photoperiodism, and Plant Hormones
Plant Responses to Environmental Cues Tropisms, Photoperiodism, and Plant Hormones Plant Responses to Environmental Cues Phototropism - plant growth response to light shoots bend toward light - positive
More informationReview of the Cell and Its Organelles
Biology Learning Centre Review of the Cell and Its Organelles Tips for most effective learning of this material: Memorize the names and structures over several days. This will help you retain what you
More informationHormones & Chemical Signaling
Hormones & Chemical Signaling Part 2 modulation of signal pathways and hormone classification & function How are these pathways controlled? Receptors are proteins! Subject to Specificity of binding Competition
More informationMacromolecules 1 Carbohydrates, Lipids & Nucleic Acids
VEA Bringing Learning to Life Program Support Notes Macromolecules 1 Carbohydrates, Lipids & Nucleic Acids Grades 10 - College 25mins Teacher Notes by Sue Wright, B. Sc., Dip. Ed. Produced by VEA Pty Ltd
More informationBiological Molecules
Biological Molecules I won t lie. This is probably the most boring topic you have ever done in any science. It s pretty much as simple as this: learn the material deal with it. Enjoy don t say I didn t
More informationEnergy Production In A Cell (Chapter 25 Metabolism)
Energy Production In A Cell (Chapter 25 Metabolism) Large food molecules contain a lot of potential energy in the form of chemical bonds but it requires a lot of work to liberate the energy. Cells need
More informationChapter-21b: Hormones and Receptors
1 hapter-21b: Hormones and Receptors Hormone classes Hormones are classified according to the distance over which they act. 1. Autocrine hormones --- act on the same cell that released them. Interleukin-2
More informationCellular Energy. 1. Photosynthesis is carried out by which of the following?
Cellular Energy 1. Photosynthesis is carried out by which of the following? A. plants, but not animals B. animals, but not plants C. bacteria, but neither animals nor plants D. all living organisms 2.
More informationRegulation of enzyme activity
1 Regulation of enzyme activity Regulation of enzyme activity is important to coordinate the different metabolic processes. It is also important for homeostasis i.e. to maintain the internal environment
More informationControl of Gene Expression
Home Gene Regulation Is Necessary? Control of Gene Expression By switching genes off when they are not needed, cells can prevent resources from being wasted. There should be natural selection favoring
More information7.2 Cells: A Look Inside
CHAPTER 7 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 7.2 Cells: A Look Inside Imagine a factory that makes thousands of cookies a day. Ingredients come into the factory, get mixed and baked, then the cookies are packaged.
More informationBiofuel Feedstocks and Production
Lecture Five Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin Biological and Ecological Engineering Department Summary of Lecture Four Synthesis of starch in plants. Amylose and amylopectin. Crystalline and amorphous
More informationPlant and Animal Cells
Plant and Animal Cells a. Explain that cells take in nutrients in order to grow, divide and to make needed materials. S7L2a b. Relate cell structures (cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, chloroplasts, and
More informationBiochemistry - I. Prof. S. Dasgupta Department of Chemistry Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur Lecture-11 Enzyme Mechanisms II
Biochemistry - I Prof. S. Dasgupta Department of Chemistry Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur Lecture-11 Enzyme Mechanisms II In the last class we studied the enzyme mechanisms of ribonuclease A
More informationCopyright 2000-2003 Mark Brandt, Ph.D. 54
Pyruvate Oxidation Overview of pyruvate metabolism Pyruvate can be produced in a variety of ways. It is an end product of glycolysis, and can be derived from lactate taken up from the environment (or,
More information