DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 1
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1 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device Robert J. Robbins Johns Hopkins University [email protected] DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 1
2 Goals of the Genome Project Sequence the Genome equivalent to obtaining an image of a mass-storage device Map the Genome equivalent to developing a fileallocation table for the mass-storage device Understand the Genome equivalent to reverse engineering the files on the mass-storage device all the way back to design and maintenance specifications DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 2
3 Sequencing the Genome DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 3
4 Getting the Sequence Obtaining one full human sequence will be a technical challenge. If the DNA sequence from a single human sperm cell were typed on a continuous ribbon in ten-pitch type, that ribbon could be stretched from San Francisco to Chicago to Washington to Houston to Los Angeles, and back to San Francisco, with about 60 miles of ribbon left over. The amount of human sequence currently sequenced is equal to less than onethird of that left-over 60-mile fragment. We have a long way to go, and getting there will be expensive. Computers will play a crucial role in the entire process, from robotics to control experimental equipment to complex analytical methods for assembling sequence fragments. year per base percent cost budget year cumulative completed 1995 $ ,000,000 10,774,411 10,774, % 1996 $ ,000,000 21,043,771 31,818, % 1997 $ ,000,000 39,281,706 71,099, % 1998 $ ,000,000 84,175, ,274, % 1999 $ ,000, ,350, ,625, % 2000 $ ,000, ,700, ,325, % 2001 $ ,000, ,400,673 1,333,726, % 2002 $ ,000, ,400,673 2,007,126, % 2003 $ ,000, ,400,673 2,680,527, % 2004 $ ,000, ,400,673 3,353,928, % DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 4
5 Understanding the Genome DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 5
6 Reverse Engineering Codes Understanding the genome involves the equivalent of reverse engineering binary codes for an unknown computer system. This is nearly impossible for a single program, but comparive analyses of similar programs can provide a start. Suppose you had two programs, one of which caused a computer to undergo a cold boot, the other a warm boot. A comparison of these programs would give some small insights into the workings of that computer. WARMBOOT: BA E DA BB C EA FF FF COLDBOOT: BA E DA BB C EA FF FF Alignments of the codes can provide insights into regions of common function: WARMBOOT: COLDBOOT: BA E DA BB C EA FF FF BA E DA BB C EA FF FF DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 6
7 Reverse Engineering Codes Similar methods could be used to analyze programs that caused messages to be displayed on screen. Assume that you have the sources for four short programs, each of which causes a short message to be written to the screen: 1 = Hello world 2 = Hi world 3 = Goodbye world 4 = Hello Aligning the sequences (inserting blanks where necessary) allows the detection of common features: 1: EB 0D C 6C 6F F 72 6C B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 2: 3: 4: EB 0A F 72 6C B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 EB 0F F 6F F 72 6C B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 EB C 6C 6F B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 7
8 Reverse Engineering Codes Now, suppose you get a fifth program, that writes the same "Hello world" message as the first program, but which has different binaries. At first, the sequences appear fairly different: 1: EB 0D C 6C 6F F 72 6C B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 5: EB B4 00 B4 09 BA 0F 01 CD 21 EB 0D C 6C F 72 6C 6C 24 C3 Again, sequence similarities can provide clues... 1: EB 0D C 6C 6F F 72 6C B4 00 B4 09 BA CD 21 C3 5: EB B4 00 B4 09 BA 0F 01 CD 21 EB 0D C 6C F 72 6C 6C 24 C3 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 8
9 Reverse Engineering Codes This kind of comparative technique is used in biology. gene name DNA sequence near transcription initiation site lacz malt arac galp1 deop2 cat tnaa arae ---ccaggc TTtACA ctttatgcttccggctcg- TATgtT --gtgtgga--- --tcatcgc TTGcat tagaaaggtttctggcc-- gacctt --ataacca--- --atccatg TgGACt tttctgccgtgattata-- gacact tttgttacg catgt cacact tttcgcatctttgttatgc TATggT --tatttca gtgta TcGAag tgtgttgcggagtagatgt TAgAAT --actaaca--- gatcggcac gtaaga ggttccaactttcac---- cataat -gaaataag--- -tttcagaa TaGACA aaaactctgagtgtaa--- TAatgT --agcctcg ccgac ctgaca cctgcgtgagttgttcacg TATttT ttcactatg--- consensus TTGACA TATAAT DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 9
10 Mapping the Genome DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 10
11 The Simplistic View of a Gene P coding region T T 1 T 2 P 1 P 2 coding region -- gene2 coding region -- gene 1 ATGCTGCATAGACGATC Genes are sequences of DNA. Mapping the genome involves identifying and locating specific functional regions of DNA. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 11
12 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device Mass Storage System: Underlying primitive structure is linked list, not physical medium List has polarity Addressing is associative, not physical No content restriction on linear order of data Understanding how DNA is constructed is necessary for understanding how it functions. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 12
13 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device Redundant Mass Storage System: Full structure is dual linked list Lists have opposite polarity Total content restriction on paired data Either list can be data, the other redundant DNA has much in common with a mass-storage device, but a mass-storage device based on an underlying linked list, not a physical system with spatial addresses independent of what is being addressed. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 13
14 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device An expressed region of the genome consists of a coding region flanked by an upstream associative start signal and a downstream associative stop signal. Associative start-reading signal (promoter) Associative stop reading signal (terminator) Intervening coding region Expressed regions may occur on either strand of the DNA double helix. The two strands are transcribed in opposite directions. Gene 1 P 1 T 1 Gene 3 P 3 T 3 Gene 4 P 4 T 4 T 2 Gene 2 P 2 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 14
15 DNA as a Mass-Storage Device The expression of an individual region occurs as a series of steps... Gene 1 P 1 T 1 Primary Transcript: Transcription mrna: Polypeptide: Post-transcriptional modification Translation Modified Polypeptide: Post-translational modification Self-asembly to final protein DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 15
16 The MMS Operon Escherichia coli P 1 P2 P x P 3 P a nut Pb eq T 1 P T 2 hs orfx rpsu dnag rpod S21 Primase Sigma-70 Translation Replication Transcription Lupski, J.R., Godson, G.N., 1989, DNA ->DNA, and DNA -> RNA->Protein: Orchestration by a single complex operon, BioEssays, 10: In practice, many genomic regions exhibit considerable complexity. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 16
17 The Gart/Lcp Locus Drosophila melanogaster T G P L T L P x 3' 5' 3' 5' 5' 3' Henikoff, S., Keene, M.A., Fechtel, K., and Fristrom, J.W., 1986, Gene within a gene: Nested Drosophila genes encode unrelated proteins on opposite strands, Cell 44:33. Genes can be broken up with non-coding sub-sequences (introns) interspersed among coding sub-sequences (exons). An entire gene may lie within an intro of another gene. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 17
18 The UGT1 Locus P f P e P d P c P b P a T UGT1F UGT1E UGT1D UGT1C UGT1BP UGT1A phenol UDP-glucuronosyltransferase: UGT1F bilirubin UDP-glucuronosyltransferases: UGT1D UGT1A Ritter, J.K., Chen, F., et al., 1992, A novel complex locus UGT1 encodes human bilirubin, phenol, and other UDPglucuronosyltransferase isozymes with identical carboxyl termini, J. Biol. Chem. 267:3257. The human UGT1 locus seems to be an example of a nested gene family. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 18
19 The POMC Locus Products Homo sapiens Preproopiomelanocortin signal peptide γ-msh Corticotropin β-lipotropin α-msh β-msh Endorphin γ Lipotropin Enkephalin Some regions of the genome produce multiple proteins from a single polypeptide precursor. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 19
20 Guide RNAs P T P T gene 1 gene 2 enzyme grna + RNA edited mrna protein Complex interactions among transcipts from different genomic locations may be required to produce a single protein. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 20
21 The rrna Loci Homo sapiens P T P T P rrna gene cluster IGS rrna gene cluster IGS rrna gene cluster 8-14 kbp 18S RNA 5S RNA 28S RNA 2300 bp 4200 bp 156 bp pre rrna transcription unit Some regions of the genome are characterized by multiple tandem repeats of the same gene. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 21
22 D14S1 is a VNTR Locus Frequency of PstI fragment sizes (kb) AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA A A A A A A A A A A A AA A A A A AA A A A A AA AA AA A A AA AA A AA A AA AA A AA Balazs, I., Neuweiler, J., Gunn, P., Kidd, J., Kidd, K.K., Kuhl, J., and Mingjun, L., 1992, Human population genetic studies using hypervariable loci, Genetics, 131: Regions of the genome may differ in length among normal individuals. DNA as a Mass-Storage Device: 22
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