DNA Replication & Protein Synthesis. This isn t a baaaaaaaddd chapter!!!
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1 DNA Replication & Protein Synthesis This isn t a baaaaaaaddd chapter!!!
2 The Discovery of DNA s Structure Watson and Crick s discovery of DNA s structure was based on almost fifty years of research by other scientists
3 DNA s Building Blocks Nucleotide A nucleic acid monomer consisting of a fivecarbon sugar (deoxyribose), three phosphate groups, and one of four nitrogen-containing bases DNA consists of four nucleotide building blocks Two pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine Two purines: adenine and guanine
4 Four Kinds of Nucleotides in DNA
5 Chargaff s Rules The amounts of thymine and adenine in DNA are the same, and the amounts of cytosine and guanine are the same: A = T and G = C The proportion of adenine and guanine differs among species
6 Watson and Crick s DNA Model A DNA molecule consists of two nucleotide chains (strands), running in opposite directions and coiled into a double helix Base pairs form on the inside of the helix, held together by hydrogen bonds (A-T and G-C)
7 Patterns of Base Pairing Bases in DNA strands can pair in only one way A always pairs with T; G always pairs with C The sequence of bases is the genetic code Variation in base sequences gives life diversity
8 Structure of DNA
9 Key Concepts Discovery of DNA s Structure A DNA molecule consists of two long chains of nucleotides coiled into a double helix Four kinds of nucleotides make up the chains, which are held together along their length by hydrogen bonds
10 DNA Replication and Repair A cell copies its DNA before mitosis or meiosis I DNA repair mechanisms and proofreading correct most replication errors
11 Semiconservative DNA Replication Each strand of a DNA double helix is a template for synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA One template builds DNA continuously; the other builds DNA discontinuously, in segments Each new DNA molecule consist of one old strand and one new strand
12 Semiconservative Replication of DNA
13 Enzymes of DNA Replication DNA helicase Breaks hydrogen bonds between DNA strands DNA polymerase Joins free nucleotides into a new strand of DNA DNA ligase Joins DNA segments on discontinuous strand
14 Animation: DNA replication
15 Discontinuous Synthesis of DNA It jumps back! It has to be assembled at the unwinding!
16 Animation: Semidiscontinuous DNA replication
17 Checking for Mistakes Because so much DNA is being replicated in the many cells of the body, there is a potential for errors to occur! DNA repair mechanisms DNA polymerases proofread DNA sequences during DNA replication and repair damaged DNA When proofreading and repair mechanisms fail, an error becomes a mutation a permanent change in the DNA sequence. Can alter the genetic message and affect protein synthesis
18 Mutations Mutations in germ cells Passed to future generations Important for evolutionary change Mutations in somatic cells Not passed to future generations but passed to all other somatic cells derived from it
19 Key Concepts How Cells Duplicate Their DNA Before a cell begins mitosis or meiosis, enzymes and other proteins replicate its chromosome(s) Newly forming DNA strands are monitored for errors Uncorrected errors may become mutations
20 From DNA to Protein Transcription and Translation
21 The Nature of Genetic Information Each strand of DNA consists of a chain of four kinds of nucleotides: A, T, G and C The sequence of the four bases in the strand is the genetic information Transcription and translation are used to turn the DNA strand s base sequence into a protein
22 Converting a Gene to an RNA Transcription Enzymes use the nucleotide sequence of a gene to synthesize a complementary strand of RNA DNA is transcribed to RNA Most RNA is single stranded RNA uses uracil in place of thymine RNA uses ribose in place of deoxyribose
23 DNA and RNA
24 RNA in Protein Synthesis Messenger RNA (mrna) Contains information transcribed from DNA Ribosomal RNA (rrna) Main component of ribosomes, where polypeptide chains are built Transfer RNA (trna) Delivers amino acids to ribosomes
25 Converting mrna to Protein Translation The information carried by mrna is decoded into a sequence of amino acids, resulting in a polypeptide chain that folds into a protein mrna is translated to protein rrna and trna translate the sequence of base triplets in mrna into a sequence of amino acids
26 Key Concepts DNA to RNA to Protein Proteins consist of polypeptide chains The chains are sequences of amino acids that correspond to sequences of nucleotide bases in DNA called genes The path leading from genes to proteins has two steps: transcription and translation
27 Transcription: DNA to RNA RNA polymerase assembles RNA by linking RNA nucleotides into a chain, in the order dictated by the base sequence of a gene A new RNA strand is complementary in sequence to the DNA strand from which it was transcribed
28 DNA Replication and Transcription DNA replication and transcription both synthesize new molecules by base-pairing In transcription, a strand of mrna is assembled on a DNA template using RNA nucleotides Uracil (U) nucleotides pair with A nucleotides RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the transcript
29 Base-Pairing in DNA Synthesis and Transcription
30 The Process of Transcription RNA polymerase and regulatory proteins attach to a promoter (a specific binding site in DNA close to the start of a gene) RNA polymerase moves over the gene in a 5' to 3' direction, unwinds the DNA helix, reads the base sequence, and joins free RNA nucleotides into a complementary strand of mrna
31 Transcription
32 Animation: Gene transcription details
33 Transcription Many RNA polymerases can transcribe a gene at the same time
34 Animation: Transcription
35 Key Concepts DNA to RNA: Transcription During transcription, one strand of a DNA double helix is a template for assembling a single, complementary strand of RNA (a transcript) Each transcript is an RNA copy of a gene
36 RNA and the Genetic Code Base triplets in an mrna are words in a proteinbuilding message Two other classes of RNA (rrna and trna) translate those words into a polypeptide chain
37 Post-Transcriptional Modifications In eukaryotes, RNA is modified before it leaves the nucleus as a mature mrna Introns Nucleotide sequences that are removed from a new RNA Exons Sequences that stay in the RNA
38 Alternative Splicing Alternative splicing Allows one gene to encode different proteins Some exons are removed from RNA and others are spliced together in various combinations
39 Post-Transcriptional Modifications
40 Animation: Pre-mRNA transcript processing
41 mrna The Messenger mrna carries protein-building information to ribosomes and trna for translation Codon A sequence of three mrna nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid The order of codons in mrna determines the order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
42 Genetic Information From DNA to mrna to amino acid sequence
43 Genetic Code Genetic code Consists of 64 mrna codons (triplets) Some amino acids can be coded by more than one codon Some codons signal the start or end of a gene AUG (methionine) is a start codon UAA, UAG, and UGA are stop codons
44 The Genetic code
45 rrna and trna The Translators trnas deliver amino acids to ribosomes trna has an anticodon complementary to an mrna codon, and a binding site for the amino acid specified by that codon Ribosomes, which link amino acids into polypeptide chains, consist of two subunits of rrna and proteins
46 Ribosomes
47 trna
48 Key Concepts RNA Messenger RNA carries DNA s protein-building instructions Its nucleotide sequence is read three bases at a time Sixty-four mrna base triplets codons represent the genetic code Two other types of RNA interact with mrna during translation of that code
49 Translation: RNA to Protein Translation converts genetic information carried by an mrna into a new polypeptide chain The order of the codons in the mrna determines the order of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain
50 Translation Translation occurs in the cytoplasm of cells Translation occurs in three stages Initiation Elongation Termination
51 Initiation An initiation complex is formed A small ribosomal subunit binds to mrna The anticodon of initiator trna base-pairs with the start codon (AUG) of mrna A large ribosomal subunit joins the small ribosomal subunit
52 Elongation The ribosome assembles a polypeptide chain as it moves along the mrna Initiator trna carries methionine, the first amino acid of the chain The ribosome joins each amino acid to the polypeptide chain with a peptide bond
53 Termination When the ribosome encounters a stop codon, polypeptide synthesis ends Release factors bind to the ribosome Enzymes detach the mrna and polypeptide chain from the ribosome
54 Translation in Eukaryotes
55 Translation in Eukaryotes
56 Animation: Translation
57 Key Concepts RNA to Protein: Translation Translation is an energy-intensive process by which a sequence of codons in mrna is converted to a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
58 Mutated Genes and Their Protein Products If the nucleotide sequence of a gene changes, it may result in an altered gene product, with harmful effects Mutations Small-scale changes in the nucleotide sequence of a cell s DNA that alter the genetic code
59 Common Mutations Base-pair-substitution May result in a premature stop codon or a different amino acid in a protein product Example: sickle-cell anemia Deletion or insertion Can cause the reading frame of mrna codons to shift, changing the genetic message Example: Huntington s disease
60 Common Mutations
61 What Causes Mutations? Transposable elements Segments of DNA that can insert themselves anywhere in a chromosomes Spontaneous mutations Uncorrected errors in DNA replication Harmful environmental agents Ionizing radiation, UV radiation, chemicals
62 Key Concepts Mutations Small-scale, permanent changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may result from replication errors, the activity of transposable elements, or exposure to environmental hazards Such mutation can change a gene s product
63 Summary: Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotic Cells
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