Data Storage at the Nanoscale

Transcription

1 Data Storage at the Nanoscale Advances and Applications edited by Gan Fuxi Wang Yang

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3 Data Storage at the Nanoscale

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5 Data Storage at the Nanoscale Advances and Applications editors Preben Maegaard edited by Anna Krenz Gan Fuxi Wang Yang Wolfgang Palz The Rise of Modern Wind Energy Wind Power for the World

6 Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. Penthouse Level, Suntec Tower 3 8 Temasek Boulevard Singapore editorial@panstanford.com Web: British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Data Storage at the Nanoscale: Advances and Applications Copyright 2015 Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. Cover image: Courtesy of Prof. Min Gu, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia ISBN (Hardcover) ISBN (ebook) Printed in the USA

7 Contents Preface xxi 1. Overview of Information Data Storage: An Introduction 1 Gan Fuxi 1.1 Importance and Research Aims of Information Data Storage Development Trends of Different Information Storage Devices In-Line Data Storage Storage Class Memory Magnetic Data Storage Rethinking of Optical Data Storage Development Nanolithography for Information Storage Characteristics of and Requirements for Nanolithography Nanolithography by Optical Means Advanced Optical Lithography Fast Phase Change Fast Phase Change Initiated by Ultra-Short Laser Pulse New Application of Phase Change Process in Information Data Storage Field Super-Resolution Optical Data Storage Using Binary Optics 19 Wang Haifeng and Gan Fuxi 2.1 Design of the Super-Resolution Binary Optics Binary Optics Design Based on Scalar Diffraction Theory 21

8 vi Contents Binary Optics Design Based on Vector Diffraction Theory Generation of Super-Resolution Longitudinally Polarized Light Beamwith Binary Optics Application of Binary Optics to Near-Field Recording System Configuration for Circular Polarized Light System Configuration for Longitudinally Polarized Light Near-Field Recording Using Optical Antennas Focal Spot Engineering for Bit-by-Bit Recording 39 Gan Xiaosong and Wu Jingzhi 3.1 Introduction Far-Field Modulation for Super-Resolution Focal Spot Saturation Microscopy Breaking the Diffraction Limit Without Diffraction? Discussion Plasmonic Nanofocusing and Data Storage 59 Cao Qing 4.1 Surface Plasmon and Its Properties Surface Plasmons Enhanced Transmission Metal Wire Surface Plasmon Surface Plasmon Laser Graphene Plasmon Plasmonic Nanofocusing and Nanoimaging Tapered Structure Multiple Concentric Groove Metallic Lens Metal Films for Super-Diffraction-Limited Imaging 68

9 Contents vii 4.3 Plasmonic Data Storage at the Nanoscale Brief Introduction of High-Density Optical Data Storage Two Basic Concepts of Plasmonic Data Storage High-density data storage technology mixed with plasmonic near-field transducers and bit-patterned magnetic materials Five-dimensional optical recording mediated by surface plasmons in gold nanorods Plasmonic Nanolithography Brief Introduction of Plasmonic Nanolithography Plasmonic Contact Lithography Imaging Lithography of Planar Lens Plasmonic Direct Writing Nanolithography Nano-Optical Data Storage with Nonlinear Super-Resolution Thin Films 91 Wei Jingsong and Gan Fuxi 5.1 Introduction The Principle of Nonlinear Super-Resolution Nano-Optical Data Storage Optical Response of the Nonlinear Layer Nonlinear Response of Sb-Based Phase Change Thin Films Nonlinear Response of Metal Doped Semiconductor Thin Films The sample preparation Measurement of the optical nonlinear properties The mechanism of nonlinear response The Formation of Super-Resolution Optical Spot 107

10 viii Contents Theoretical Basis of Super-Resolution Spot Formation Super-Resolution Spot Formation by Ag Doped Si Thin Films Super-Resolution Spot Formation by Sb-Based Phase Change Thin Films Experimental Results of the Nano-Optical Data Recording and Readout On the Dynamic Readout Characteristic of the Nonlinear Super-Resolution Thin Films Theoretical Analysis of the Dependence of Readout Threshold Power on Mark Size Dependence of Readout Characteristic on Laser Power Dependence of Readout Characteristic on Laser Irradiation Time Analysis of the Influence of Laser Energy on Dynamic Readout Characteristic Conclusion Mastering Technology for High-Density Optical Disc 131 Geng Yongyou and Wu Yiqun 6.1 Introduction Major Mastering Technologies for High-Density Optical Disc Electron Beam Recording UV and DUV Recording Near-Field Optical Recording Laser Thermal Recording Mechanism of laser thermal recording Materials for laser thermal recording Writing strategy for laser thermal recording STED Recording 163

11 Contents ix Principle of STED microscopy Applications in nanorecording Conclusion Laser-Induced Phase Transition and Its Application in Nano-Optical Storage 171 Wang Yang and Gan Fuxi 7.1 Introduction: Phenomena and Applications of Laser-Induced Phase Transition in the Optical Storage Amorphous and Crystalline States for Binary Memory Transient States for Self-Masking Super-Resolution Meta-Stable Multi-States for Multilevel Recording Physical Process of Laser-Induced Phase Transition Probing Method for Laser-Induced Phase Transition Process Phase Transition Dynamics Driven by Laser Pulses Carrier Dynamics Driven by Ultrashort Laser Pulses Laser Pulse Induced Amorphization Process Laser Pulse Induced Crystallization Process Comparison of optical and electrical transient response during nanosecond laser pulse induced crystallization Optical transients during the picosecond laser pulse induced crystallization: comparison of nucleation-driven and growth-driven processes 198

12 x Contents Optical transients during the femtosecond laser pulse induced crystallization Phase-Change Optical Disk Technology New Optical Memory Functions Based on Phase-Change Materials Fast Cycling Driven by Ultrashort Laser Pulses with Identical Fluences Optical-Electrical Hybrid Operation for Phase-Change Materials Metal-Nanoparticle-Embedded Phase-Change Recording Pits for Plasmonics and Super-Resolution Polarization Readout for Multilevel Phase-Change Recording by Crystallization Degree Modulation Polarized Laser-Induced Dichroism of Phase-Change Materials Fluorescence Multi-States of Ion-Doped Phase-Change Thin Films SPIN-Based Optical Data Storage 259 Gu Min, Cao Yaoyu, Li Xiangping, and Gan Zongsong 8.1 SPIN Based on Single-Photon Photoinduction Theoretical Model of the SPIN Process Experimental Demonstration of Single-Photon SPIN SPIN Based on Two-Photon Photoinduction Experimental Demonstration of Two-Photo SPIN Properties and Limitations Conclusion Magnetic Random Access Memory 281 Han Xiufeng and Syed Shahbaz Ali 9.1 History of the Development of MRAM Devices MRAM Devices Based on GMR/AMR Effects 287

13 Contents xi 9.3 Field-Write Mode MRAM Based on TMR Effect Astroid-Mode MRAM Principles of Astroid-Mode MRAM Development of Astroid-Mode MRAM Toggle-Mode MRAM Principles of Toggle-Mode MRAM Write-Current Reduction in Toggle-Mode MRAM Energy Diagram of Toggle Operation Competitive Market MRAM Based on Vertical Current Writing and Its Control Method Field-Write Mode MRAM Chip-Design Spin Transfer Torque MRAM Based on Nanoscale Magnetic Tunnel Junction MTJ Spin Transfer Torque Effects ST T Effects in a Multilayer Thin-Film Stack STT MRAM with an in-plane Magnetic Configuration Switching Characteristics and Threshold in MTJs Switching Probability in the Thermal Regime STT MRAM with a Perpendicular Magnetic Configuration Principles of ST T-MRAM with a Perpendicular Magnetic Configuration Reliability of Tunnel Barriers in MTJs Write-Current Reduction Current-Write Mode MRAM Chip-Design Introduction of the STT-MRAM Chip Design Asymmetric MTJ Switching 329

14 xii Contents 9.6 Nanoring and Nano-Elliptical Ring-Shaped MTJ-Based MRAM Thermally Assisted Field Write in MRAM Self-Referenced MRAM Outlook to the Future MRAM Separated Read and Write Operation MRAM Domain Wall Motion MRAM Rashba Effect/Spin-Orbital Coupling Effect Based MRAM Spin Hall Effect Based MRAM Electric Field Switching MRAM Roadmap of MRAM Demo Device Development RRAM Device and Circuit 363 Lin Yinyin, Song Yali, and Xue Xiaoyong 10.1 Introduction RRAM Cell T1R Cell with Transistor as Selector Device T1R cell structure Bipolar and unipolar operation Cell Using Diode as Selector Device D1R cell with traditional one-directional diode as selector device for unipolar operation BD1R cell with bidirectional diode as selector device in support of both bipolar and unipolar operation Self-Selecting RRAM Cell Hybrid memory Complementary-RRAM 382

15 Contents xiii 10.3 Resistive Switching Mechanism ITRS Categories of RRAM Resistive Switching Behavior Forming and SET Process Filament Type Filament Size and the Scaling Characteristics Influencing Factors and Optimization of RRAM Performance Decrease of Switching Current Multilayer architecture Control of the compliance current Enhancement of Uniformity Electrode effects Buffer layer inserting and bilayer construct Embedded metal to control conductive path Programming algorithm RRAM Reliability The Retention Test Method Retention Model and Improvement Methods RRAM retention failure model Retention improvement by forming high-density Vo Retention improvement by dynamic self-adaptive write method Endurance Model and Improvement Methods Endurance failure model High-endurance cell architecture 411

16 xiv Contents Enhancement of endurance by programming algorithm Circuit Techniques for Fast Read and Write Current SA for High-Speed Read Feedback-regulated bit line biasing approach Process-temperature-aware dynamic BL-bias scheme Fast Verify for High-Speed Write Yield and Reliability Enhancement Assisted by Circuit Circuit Techniques to Improve Read Yield Parallel-series reference cell SARM reference Body-drain-driven current sense amplifier Temperature-aware bit line biasing Circuit-Assisted Write Yield Improvement and Operation Power Reduction Self-adaptive write mode Self-timing write with feedback Circuit-Assisted Endurance and Retention Improvement Filament scaling forming technique and level-verify-write scheme Dynamic self-adaptive write method Circuit Strategies for 3D RRAM Sneaking Path and Large Power Consumption of Conventional Cross-Bar Architecture D RRAM Based on 1TXR Cell without Access Transistor TXR cell 436

17 Contents xv Array architecture Write algorithm to inhibit write disturbance Read algorithm to inhibit read disturbance D RRAM Based on 1D1R Cell Array architecture Write circuit with leakage compensation for accurate state-change detection Read circuit with bit line capacitive isolation for fast swing in SA D RRAM Based on 1BD1R Array architecture Programming conditions for 1BD array Multi-bit write architecture with write dummy cell Vertical Stack with Cost Advantage of Lithography Cross section of cell and array Integration Cost advantage of lithography Phase-Change Random Access Memory 463 Liu Bo 11.1 Introduction Principle of PCRAM Comparisons between PCRAM and SRAM, DRAM and Flash History of PCRAM R&D Phase-Change Material Materials Selective Method 474

18 xvi Contents GeSbTe System SbTe-Based Materials SiSbTe System GeTe System Sb-Based Materials Nano-Composite Phase-Change Materials Superlattice-Like Structure Phase-Change Materials Memory Cell Selector Overview Diode Memory Cell Resistor Structure Processing Deposition of Phase-Change Materials Etching of Phase-Change Materials Chemical Mechanical Polishing of Phase-Change Materials Characteristics of PCRAM Memory Cell Reduction of Operation Current/Voltage Reliability Data Retention Speed Future Outlook Scaling Properties Multi-Bit Operation Three-Dimensional Integration Potential Application of PCRAM Nano-DRAM Technology for Data Storage Application 591 Wang Pengfei and Zhang David Wei 12.1 Introduction to DRAM Cell Technology Cell Operation of DRAM Cell DRAM Device and Array Structure 594

19 Contents xvii Requirements of Nano-Scale DRAM Cell Capacitance of the storage node Drive current and off leakage current of array access transistor Nano-DRAM Memory Cell and Array Design Layout of the Stacked-Capacitor DRAM Design of the Array Transistor RCAT and saddle-fin transistor Extended U-shaped device FinFET for DRAM Spherical transistor and buried word line array device Cell Architecture Connection between the storage capacitor and array transistor F 2 cell design Storage Capacitor Novel DRAM Concepts Floating Body Memory Cell Tunneling Transistor Based Memory Cell Device working principle Device operation Modeling of the memory access transistor of SFG DRAM: TFET Capacitive coupling in the SFG DRAM cell Transient behavior 618

20 xviii Contents Investigation of the integration methods Self-refreshable 1 and nondestructive read properties Scalability and U-shaped SFG memory Extended applications of SFG: 1-T Image sensor Integration with logic and flash memory devices Conclusions Ferroelectric Memory 633 Wang Genshui, Gao Feng and Dong Xianlin 13.1 Introduction Ferroelectricity Historical Overview Characteristics Polarization and hysteresis Domains and switching Materials Perovskite oxides Size effects Strain Applications Ferroelectric Memory FeRAM FeCapacitor Depolarizing fields and critical thickness FeRAM FeFETRAM Reliabilities Retention 653

21 Contents xix Endurance Temperature-dependent dielectric anomaly Key Technologies Competing Memory Technologies Future Prospects Multiferroics Memory Nanoscale Ferroelectric Memory Organic Ferroelectric Memory Conclusions Nanomagnetic and Hybrid Information Storage 675 Jin Qingyuan and Ma Bin 14.1 Overview of Magnetic Recording and Hard Disk Drive Hard Drive Technology Inductive Magnetic Head Magnetoresistive Head Giant Magnetoresistive Head Hard Drive Technology Superparamagnetic Effect and Bottleneck of Longitudinal Recording Media Perpendicular Recording Media L1 0 -Ordered FePt Exchange-Coupled Composite Media Emerging Magnetic Data Storage Technology Perpendicular Magnetic Recording Heat-Assisted Magnetic Recording Patterned Media 699 Index 707

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23 Preface Since the mid-1980s, when I got involved in the field of information data storage, I was most interested in optical data storage. I held the International Symposium on Optical Storage (ISOS) in China nine times since 1988 and the International Workshop on Information Storage two times since 2008, and the proceedings were published in SPIE Proceedings, Washington. New ideas and experiments related to advanced data storage have emerged in recent years, such as quantum storage, atomic storage, and biomolecular storage, which should be encouraged further. I did some work in the field of information data storage in past 10 years, and I am still involved in it. Owing to the requirement of high storage density, the data storage device should work in the nanoscale region. High-density data storage should be green, safe, and long life in the big data era. In this book, I invited several scientists of China to present their research in the field. The book emphasizes more practical methods for data storage development and application. The authors share with the readers their thoughts concerning information data storage at present and in the future. I thank the authors of this book for their contributions. Also, thanks are due to my colleagues at the Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, CAS, for their assistance and cooperation, especially to Prof. Wang Yang, the coeditor, for checking and editing all the manuscripts. The editing and publication of this book were also supported under the research grants of the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the National Basic Research Program of China, and the Intellectual Innovation Project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Gan Fuxi Shanghai, January 2015

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