Warwick Science Name:.. Year 11 Human Biology. Unit 4 Muscloskeletal System Workbooklet

Transcription

1 Name:.. Warwick Science Year 11 Human Biology Unit 4 Muscloskeletal System Workbooklet Page Johnno Publications

2 Objectives & Revision Checklist Objective Explain the functions of the skeleton. Explain that the skeleton is the structural framework of the body. Recall the major bones in the skeleton. Explain the structure and function of all bones in the body. Recall that bone is a tissue and explain how the bone develops and grows. Recall the different types of joints and explain how they permit the range of movement they do. Explain the structure of a typical synovial joint. Explain the causes and effects of osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Identify the major muscle types, citing features of each one. List the major muscle groups. Explain the structure and function of tendons and cartilage and how these work together with muscles to move the bones. Explain the macroscopic and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle tissue. Explain the sliding filament model in terms of muscle contraction. List the major types of joints and describe the movement that each joint has. Explain how movement about a joint occurs, using specific muscle groups as an example. Explain the relationship between the skeleton, muscles, tissues and the nervous system work together to provide movement. Needs Review Fair Well Page - 2 -

3 Unit Outline & Associated Text Readings & Questions Content Text Reading Review Q AYK p 162 Q 1-4 p 162 Q 1 p 162 Q The Skeleton structure & function p Cartilage structure & function p The Skeleton Bones of the body(axial & appendicular skeleton) p p 162 Q 5 4. Joints types and movement of joint types, structure of synovial joints p p 162 Q Effects of aging on the skeleton - osteoporosis & osteoarthritis p p 162 Q Muscles Types & coordination of movement p 136 p 145 Q 1 p 145 Q 1 7. Skeletal Muscle structure & function, sliding filament model p p 145 Q 2-4 p 145 Q Systems (skeletal, muscular & nervous) working together. p p 145 Q 5-9 p 145 Q 4-7 p Q 5-10 Page - 3 -

4 Terminology List Skeletal System Articulation Diaphysis..... Epiphysis.... Articular Cartilage..... Compact Bone... Connective Tissue..... Haversian System Lamallae Canaliculi Cancellous Bone..... Trabeculae..... Cartilage Lacunae Chondrocytes Hyaline Fibrocatilage Page - 4 -

5 Perichondrium Axial Skeleton Appendicular Skeleton..... Joint Synovial Joint Bursae Osteoporosis Osteoarthritis Prosthesis Bursae Muscular System Extensibility Elasticity Antagonists..... Agonist Synergists Fixator Page - 5 -

6 Osteoporosis Sarcolemma Sarcoplasm Myofilaments..... Actin Myosin Sliding Filament Model Neuromuscular Junction Motor End Plate Add Additional Words Here Page - 6 -

7 Study Questions 1. Give 2 examples of a flat bone, long bone and short bone. 2. List the parts of the appendicular skeleton. 3. What is the function of the rib cage? 4. What do you think is the main function of the sternum? 5. Which organs does the pelvic girdle protect? 6. Which limb bone(s) are the longest? 7. Which limb bone(s) would you expect to be thicker, and why? 8. Which parts of the skeleton form the axial skeleton? 9. List the 5 functions of the skeleton. 10. Explain the structure of a long bone. 11. Describe the structure of a typical vertebra. 12. Explain how bones undergo ossification. 13. Name the major types of joints. 14. Describe the 5 different types of synovial joints. 15. Using a specific example, explain the components of a synovial joint. 16. What are muscles and what are they made of? 17. Describe the general microscopic structure of muscle tissue. 18. Using diagrams, describe the theory of muscle contraction. 19. What are the main sources of energy for muscle contraction? 20. Why do muscles work in antagonistic pairs? Give an example of two muscles that work antagonistically. 21. Explain how muscles move the bones. Page - 7 -

8 Activity 1 The Skeleton 1. On the following diagram colour the AXIAL skeleton and label the bones that make it up. Page - 8 -

9 2. On the following diagram colour the APPENDICULAR skeleton and label the bones that make it up. Page - 9 -

10 Activity 2 Structure of Bones 1. Provide a description for each of the following functions of the skeleton: (a) Support: (b) Storage: (c) Blood Cell Production:..... (d) Protection: (e) Leverage: Label the long bone below highlighting the following parts; diaphysis, epiphysis, marrow cavity, articular cartilages, compact bone, spongy bone. Page

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12 Activity 3 Bone Tissue Structure 1. Label the Osteon (Haversian System) below. 2. On the electron micrograph below, label the parts a. e. Page

13 3. State the function of the: a. lacunae b. lamellae c. canaliculi What is cartilage made up of? Give a definition for each of the following: a. Chondrin: b. Chondroblast: c. Chondrocyte: d. Lacunae: Complete the following table. Type Structure Characteristics Location Hyaline Elastic Fibrocartilage Page

14 Activity 4 Joints 1. What is a joint? Complete the table on the movement of joints. Type of Joint Movement Allowed Location Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial 3. Complete the Table below on types of synovial joints. Type of Joint Movement Allowed Location(s) Ball and socket Hinge Pivot Gliding Saddle Condyloid Page

15 Activity 5 Synovial Joints 1. Label the synovial joint below, describing the function of each structure. Periosteum 2. Define these terms in relation to joints. a. Gliding:. b. Flexion:. c. Extension:. d. Hyperextension:.. e. Abduction: f. Adduction:. g. Circumduction:. h. Rotation:... i. Pronation:.. j. Supination:. k. Inversion:.. l. Eversion:. m. Dorsiflexion:... Page

16 Activity 6 Bones: Levers of the Body Functions of the Skeleton Three orders Mankind, like all vertebrate animals, has a There are three kinds of 'orders', or levers, skeleton which provides protection and each with the load, effort and fulcrum in a support. For instance, the skull protects the different position. The first is like a see-saw brain and the ribs protect the lungs. The or pair of scissors, with the fulcrum in the pelvis supports the viscera and the spine not middle. The second is like a wheelbarrow or only supports the upper body but protects nutcracker, with the load in the middle. The the delicate spinal cord. Bones also act as third is like a fishing rod, with the effort in the points of muscular attachment. The muscles middle, for example, a pair of tongs use the bones as levers, enabling us to do all those things we take for granted. Without First Order bones, arms, for instance, would be of little use. The leverage of skeletal parts is Second Order essential to our 'strength'. F A lever is any rigid body that pivots about a E F v L E L Third Order point or a fulcrum. Usually we think of a lever F as a long thin shape, but even Archimedes of NOTE FLE E L the third century B.C. recognised the pulley The three orders of levers as a round lever. E F L A nutcracker L Load E F Effort A pair of tongs Page

17 Body Levers The bones of the body act as levers of all three orders. The upper arm acts as a third-order lever. A leg kicking a ball acts as a first-order lever. The jaw is used as a third-order lever. Questions (answer in sentences) 1. List the four functions of the skeleton described in this activity What is a lever? Describe the three orders of levers. Give two examples of this What types of lever are shown in the diagrams below? Write the answer under the example. 4. Draw five examples of human body levers Leg Kicking Upper Arm Leg Kicking The Jaw Muscle The Jaw Muscle Page

18 Activity 7 Some Past Examination Questions I 1. (12 Marks) a. Label the parts A - D. A: B: C: D: (4 Marks) b. How is the above bone suited to its function of support? (2 Marks) Consider the diagram of the Human Skeleton on the right. c. Label the following structures in the human skeleton shown above. D O E V F W (6 Marks) Page

19 Activity 8 Some Past Examination Questions 2 Question 1 (a) (10 marks) The bones that form immovable joints fit closely together. Identify an example of an immovable joint in the human body and describe how the bones are connected at such a joint. (2 marks) (b) Identify two (2) structural features that are unique to synovial joints. (2 marks) (c) (d) Identify three (3) types of synovial joints and provide an example of each in the human body. (3 marks) Two types of complementary movement created at a movable joint are flexion and extension. Differentiate between these two movements and provide an example of each of these actions occurring in the human body. (3 marks) Page

20 Activity 9 Muscle Types & Movement 1. Name the three different types of muscle tissue, highlighting their major characteristics in the table below. Muscle Type Smooth Skeletal Cardiac Location Control Function Special Features Diagram 2. Look at the diagram below. It shows the attachment of muscles and movement about the elbow joint. Draw a diagram substituting leg muscles for the arm muscles so it can be seen how the leg is bent at the knee. The origin of the triceps is at the shoulder. It is attached to the scapula and the humorous. The origin of the biceps is at the shoulder. It is attached to the scapula. scapula The biceps muscle is a flexor. When it contracts it bends the arm at the elbow. The triceps muscle is a extensor. When it contracts it straightens the arm at the elbow. radius humorous The insertion of the triceps is at the forearm. It is attached to the ulna, one of the bones in the forearm. ulna The insertion of the biceps is at the forearm. It is attached to the radius, one of the bones of the forearm. Page

21 Draw your diagram here. (Major muscle groups can be found on pages 22 23) Page

22 Major Muscles of the Body Page

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24 Activity 10 Muscle Structure & Contraction Page

25 Using your knowledge and the passage on page 24 answer the following questions. 1. Create a flow chart using words and diagrams to show the structure of skeletal muscle, starting at the whole muscle and working you way down to the structural units of the muscle, the myofibrils. 2. Make a sketch of the structure of a sarcomere. 3. Complete the table below to describe the structure of sarcomere. Structure Function I Band A Band H Zone Z Line Myosin Actin Page

26 Activity 11 The Action of Muscles of Joints 1. Look at diagram A, what do the football bladders, A and B, represent? 2. Diagram A if A is inflicted, what happens to B? If B is inflated, what happens to A? 3. Suggest the role of the additional muscle, the brachialis, in diagram B. 4. Flexor muscles bends limbs, extensor muscles straighten them. Which are the flexor muscles and the extensor muscles in these diagrams? 5. Look at diagram C what will be the effect on the leg or foot due to contraction of the following muscles biceps femoris, quadriceps fermoris, gastrocnemius (calf), anterior tibial? 6. How are muscles attached to bones? Page

27 Diagram A Diagram B Diagram C Page

28 Activity 12 Revision 1 5 A Position (iii) 6 F G 2 B E 7 4 C Position (ii) 3 8 D The Human Lower Limb The Human Upper Limb Position (iii) 1. Label the muscles A G. 2. Label the numbered bones 1 8. Page

29 What type of movement is occurring when the forearm moves: a. from position (ii) to position (i)? b. from position (ii) to position (iii)?.. What type of joint exists between: a. bones 1 and 2?.. b. bones 6 and 7?.. State what would happen if these muscles were contracted. a. B b. G c. D d. C e. F f. E Use the following terms to answer the statements below. Extensor, tendon, insertion, flexor, origin, fixed, antagonistic, triceps. The diagrams illustrate a pair of muscles which are (1).. Muscles attached to bones by means of a strip of fibrous connective tissue called a (2). The biceps is a (3), meaning its main function is to bend the arm. The fixed end of the muscle is called the (4). The end of the muscle attached to the moving bone is called the (5) When the biceps contract the (6).. relaxes. The relaxing helps bend the arm. This same muscle contracts when the arm is straightened. That is why it is called an (7)... Page

30 Activity 13 Past Examination Question 1 Question 1 (a) Differentiate between the structure and function of skeletal and smooth muscle. (2 marks) (b) The diagram below shows the sequential action of the muscles of the right leg when starting to run a race. Position One (i) Position Two What action is taking place in muscle B to get to Position Two? (1 mark) (ii) Label muscle B s antagonist with an X on the diagram. (iii) How do the joints at the two ends of the femur differ? (1 mark) (2 marks) Page

31 Activity 14 Past Examination Question 2 Question (c) The following question refers to the diagram of the sarcomere shown below H zone zone I band band Thick filament Thin filament filament filament Z Line Line A band band Sarcomere e (i) What types of proteins makes up the thin and thick filaments? (2 marks) Thin filament: Thick filament: (ii) Explain the difference between the H zone and the I band. (1 mark) (iii) Explain how the thick and thin filaments work together to produce a muscle contraction. (3 marks) Page

32 Practical One: The Axial Skeleton Imagine your body without a skeleton. You'd be like a rather odd-shaped bean bag flopped on the ground, unable to move and with nothing to protect your vital organs. Your skeleton, in common with all vertebrate skeletons, is a series of fairly rigid bones and flexible cartilages that lie within your body. We therefore call such a support system an endoskeleton. Anatomists often considered the human skeleton to be composed of 2 main sections: The axial skeleton is the principal supporting structure and forms your body's main axis. It consists of the: a. skull b. vertebral column c. ribs d. sternum. The appendicular skeleton supports your limbs and attaches them to your axial skeleton. It consists of the: a. limb girdle b. limb bones. Objectives: After finishing this exercise you should be able to: 1. Identify and name the following parts of the axial skeleton: cranial, maxilla, mandible, cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, ribs, sternum. 2. Relate the structure of the bones to the major functions of support, movement, and protection. 3. Use the following terms correctly in relation to the axial skeleton: suture, foramen magnum, intervertebral disc, fontanel. 4. List the main parts of a typical vertebra: centrum, vertebral canal, transverse processes, neural arches, neural spine. Materials you will need: Access to a human skeleton X-ray photographs of various bones and joints Skeleton atlas or charts Text information Procedure and Questions: The Skull. Examine the skull and find the: a. cranium which protects the brain b. facial bones which form the framework of the face c. maxilla or upper jaw d. mandible or lower jaw. Page

33 Q1: Describe how the cranial bones are linked together to form a continuous covering for the brain. Q2: What type of joint links the cranial bones? Freely movable, slightly movable or immovable? Q3: What name do people give to these joints in the skull?. At birth these joints were moveable. There were also gaps cailed fontanelles between some of the skull bones. During birth, distortion and movement of one bone over another occurs. The fontanelles close by age 3 years. Growth occurs where the skull bones interlock, slowing after the first few years and finally ceasing about the time of puberty. Q4: What is the value of this arrangement? Q5: The facial bones are irregular and angular. Why are there small holes in many places in these bones?.. Q6: How are the eyes protected? Describe the special features of the skull that help with this function... Q7: Feel your own nose. Squeeze and flex it from side to side. Now look at the nasal region on the model of the skull. Why is the frame of the nose mostly missing in the model?... Q8: What is the value of this form of support for the tip of the nose? Q9: What other sense organs does the skull protect?.... Q10: The mandible or lower jaw bone is the largest, strongest facial bone. What unique feature does this bone have?.. Page

34 Q11: What feature is shared by both the mandible and the maxilla?. Q12: What important digestive function do they help carry out? Holding the cranium in the palm of your hand, carefully tum the skull over and view the underside. Notice the large hole in the base of the skull. This is called the foramen magnum. Q13: What is the function of the foramen magnum?.... The Vertebral Column. Several small bones called vertebrae make up the human vertebral column. The singular for vertebrae is vertebra. Between each vertebra is a pad of cartilage called the intervertebral disc. All vertebrae have a similar basic structure, but the size and shape vary according to the region of the vertebral column and its corresponding function. Observe the vertebral column and identify the five different regions. Q14: Count the vertebrae in each region and put the total in the boxes below. a. cervical or neck vertebrae b. thoracic or chest vertebrae c. lumbar or back vertebrae d. the sacrum or several fused vertebrae e. coccyx or several fused lower vertebrae View the vertebral column from the side and notice the curves. These curves are important because they increase the strength of the column and help maintain balance in the upright position. Page

35 Find and label 4 curves that correspond with a. to d. on this diagram of the vertebral column. Diagram 1. Diagram of a human vertebral column Page

36 Q15: Although the vertebrae in the vertebral column appear to have different shapes, they all have certain features in common. Draw a diagram in the space below of a typical vertebra and label the following: a. vertebral or neural canal b. neural arch c. vertebral body or centrum d. neural spine e. transverse process The Rib Cage. The ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae dorsally and ventrally. Dorsally means at the back, and ventrally means in the front. The ribs join with the sternum to form the rib cage. Trace a rib from the vertebral column to the sternum. Q16: Briefly describe the structure of a rib Q17: There are three types of ribs. Distinguish between the three types of ribs and count the pairs of each to complete the boxes below. a. True ribs attach directly to the sternum. b. False ribs attach indirectly to the sternum. c. Floating ribs have their ventral ends free and do not attach to the sternum. Q18: Name the cavity formed by the rib cage and list the organs that normally exist in this cavity..... Place your hands on your own rib cage and breathe in and out. Q19: Suggest two features of the rib cage... Return any equipment to the equipment tray. Colour in and label all the bones of the axial on the skeleton on the next page. Page

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38 Practical Two: The Appendicular Skeleton Your appendicular skeleton consists of your limb bones. These are the bones of your arm, forearm, wrists and hands, thighs, legs and feet, together with the limb girdles which attach your limbs to your axial skeleton. Objectives: After finishing this exercise you should be able to: 1. Identify the following bones of the appendicular skeleton: scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, coxal bones, femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, 2. Relate the structure of these bones to the major functions of movement and protection. Materials you will need: Access to a skeleton or model X ray photographs of various bones or joints Skeleton atlas or charts Text information Procedure and Questions: Pectoral girdle and upper limb. Find and examine the two scapulae, or shoulder blades, and the two clavicles or collar bones. Q1: How are the bones of the pectoral girdle connected to the axial skeleton in a living human body?. Q2: How does this affect the mobility of the upper arm?... Q3 What is the function of the clavicle?... Q4 Name the bone of the upper arm and the two bones of the lower arm.. Stretch your arm out straight with your hand facing down and your elbow resting on the bench. Turn your hand to face upwards. Notice how you can rotate your hand without moving your upper arm. Q5: Which bone of the lower arm is the larger at the elbow joint? Q6: Which bone is larger at the wrist?.. Look carefully on the skeleton at the relationship of the radius with the ulna. Page

39 Q7: Describe how this allows a hand to rotate.... Q8: How many metacarpal bones are there in a hand?... Q9: How many phalanges are there in each finger?. Q10: Compare the number and size of carpal bones in the wrist with those in the fool... Make your thumb touch each finger in tum. You can do this because you have an opposable thumb. Q11 Describe two different hand grips an opposable thumb makes possible. Give an example where humans use each type of grip..... Q12: Colour in and label all the bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb on the skeleton on page 51. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb. The pelvic girdle has two halves joined by a cartilage in the mid ventral line called pubic symphysis. Each half is called an innominate bone and is really composed of 3 fused bones, the ileum, pubis and ischium. Q13: Identify and name the bones of the pelvic girdle on the skeleton diagram on page 51. Q14: Describe how the pelvis is attached to the axial skeleton. Q15: How does this compare with the attachment of the pectoral girdle? Give reasons for the d ifference After puberty a female pelvis is wider and shallower than a male pelvis. You can determine the sex of a skeleton by measuring the angle of the pubic arch. To do this locate the pubic symphysis and at the lower edge measure the angle between the ischial bones. If the angle is greater than 80 the skeleton is probably that of a female. If the angle is less than 60 the skeleton is probably that of a male. Q16: Of which sex is your model skeleton? Page

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41 Q17: Suggest some reasons for the differences found in the male and female pelvis... Q18: What is the name of the thigh bone?.. Q19: How does the thigh bone compare in shape with the humerus?.... Q20: What is the ratio of the length of humerus:thigh bone?.. Q21: Which is thicker the humerus or the thigh bone? Q22: Account for the length and thickness of the thigh bone as compared to the humerus.... Notice three projections near the head of the thigh bone. Q23: What are these projections for?.... Q24: Name the two bones of the lower leg and state which is the larger... Compare the lower leg bones with the lower arm bones. Q25: Is the same degree of movement possible in your foot, compared with your hand? Explain As a human you have an upright stance and your foot is therefore an important mobile, weight bearing structure. Look closely at the arrangement of metatarsals and the relationship of their size with the phalanges. Q26: Identify and name two arches present in a foot. Q27: Colour in and label all bones of the appendicular skeleton on the diagram. Return any equipment you have used to the distribution tray. Clean up any mess you have created on your workspace. Page

42 Q28: Compare and contrast the bones of the foot and the hand. Describe the similarities and differences and relate these to specific functions The image part with relationship ID rid46 was not found in the file. Page

43 Practical Three: The Long Bone Your bones support your body and must therefore be hard and fairly rigid, but they are made up of living cells that must have a blood supply. A long bone must have the strength to support the body while being light enough to move without costing too much energy. Bone has a tensile strength similar to that of cast iron, but has only a third the weight. Objectives: Draw a diagram of a long bone to show its structure. Label the following parts of a long bone: diaphysis (or shaft), epiphysis (or head), medullary cavity (or marrow cavity). Distinguish between spongy (woven or cancellous) bone and compact (dense) bone and state its distribution in a long bone. Relate the characteristics of the periosteum and articular cartilage to their functions. Describe the function of a haversian system. Describe the following features of a haversian system: osteocyte, lamellae, haversian canal Materials you will need: A fresh beef long limb bone longitudinally cut An old dried beef bone Hand lens Access to a microscope TS slide of compact bone Procedure and Questions: View the outside of the long bone. Press outside of the bone with your finger nail. Q1: How does it feel? Q2: What is this fibrous outer layer called?... Q3: What are its functions?.. Q4: Where is the fibrous layer missing? Look at the head of the bone. Q5: Describe its external appearance and explain its function.. Q6: Name the tissue type that covers the head of the bone.. Page

44 Q7: Look at the cut surface of the bone. Feel the fatty substance in the medullary cavity, this is called yellow marrow. Using the hand lens observe the bone of the shaft and compare it with the bone at the head. The bone in the shaft is called compact bone. Here bone tissue is densely packed in concentric cylinders, each cylinder having its own network of blood vessels. These cylinders are the haversian systems and in compact bone they are packed in a regular parallel arrangement. Describe the distribution of compact bone. Where is it thickest?... A long, thin stick such as a ruler or garden stake tends to break in the middle when you apply a force. The middle is the place where the greatest stress occurs. Thickening in this region allows bone to withstand stress. Q8: The head of the bone is called cancellous or spongy bone. Feel it with your finger nail. You should notice blood in spaces within the spongy bone. Is the spongy bone soft like a sponge?.. Q9: Why do you think it is called spongy?. Q10: Spongy bone contains red bone marrow. What is the function of red marrow?.. See if you can find an epiphysial cartilage which is the remnant of cartilage between a diaphysis and an epiphysis. In the embryo the whole 'bone' consists of cartilage. Starting before birth, bone progressively replaces the cartilage in a process known as ossification. Ossification begins in the diaphysis, or shaft, and progresses towards the epiphyses, or heads. Late it starts in the epiphyses and progresses towards the diaphysis. When bone in the diaphyses meets bone in the epiphyses, ossification is complete. This happens at the end of puberty. Growth in the length of the bone is then no longer possible. Q11: Why is ossification necessary?. Q12: Why does ossification need to be progressive and a gap of cartilage remain until the end of puberty? View a slide showing a cross section of a compact bone. Page

45 Q13: Draw a Haversian system and label the bone cells, or osteocytes, haversian canal, lamellae or bony matrix. People often think bone is dead, but as you are now aware, it contains osteocytes, or live bone cells, and blood vessels. There are nerves too, as you will know if you have ever damaged a bone. They are in the haversian canals with the blood vessels. Bone is a metabolically active tissue. Q14: If bone were dead, what would be the consequence if you broke a bone? Q15: First aid for a broken bone involves immobilising it and c overing the wound if bone has broken through to the surface. The first-aider should never move bone back into alignment. Explain the reasons for this first aid procedure Page

46 Q16: Draw a diagram of a longitudinal section of a long bone and label the following parts. Epiphysis Articular cartilage Diaphysis Cancellous, or spongy bone Compact bone Periosteum Epiphysial cartilage, if present Medullary cavity Yellow marrow Red marrow Q17: The hollow cylindrical design of long bones provides certain advantages over a solid long bone. What might these be? Compare the density of bone marrow with that of fibrous bone and try to flex the long bone. Q18: The haversian cylinders are aligned parallel with the length of the long bone, instead of perpendicular to the length. What advantage does this provide? Return any equipment where you found it. Clean up any mess you made. Now go back to the objectives listed at the start of this activity and make sure you have achieved them all. Page

47 Practical Four: Bone Composition As bone forms, inorganic salts are deposited in the matrix between the cells. In this activity you will investigate the effect of removing some of these inorganic salts. Objectives: 1. Understand the chemical makeup of bones. You will need: Two small bones or pieces of bone Two 100 ml beakers Forceps 2 Molar hydrochloric acid (HCl). Procedure and Questions: Place a small bone, or piece of bone, in a beaker and cover with nitric acid. In the second beaker place a similar piece of bone and cover with water. After leaving the bones to stand for at least two days, remove the bones and rinse under running water. Feel, and try bending, each of the two bones. Q1: Describe any differences that you observed between the bone left in the acid and the one left in the water Q2: Propose a hypothesis to account for any differences that you observed..... Q3: If a person does not consume enough calcium in the diet for normal body functioning, calcium is removed from the bones. What would be one of the symptoms of severe dietary calcium deficiency? Page

48 Practical Six: Joints Where any two bones meet in the human body there is a joint. Anatomists classify joints according to how much movement they allow. Joints can be: fixed or immovable, which allow no movement slightly movable, which allow small amount of movement freely movable, which allow free movement. Anatomists classify these joints further according to the type of movement allowed. This depends on the shape of the bones making the joint. There are four types of freely movable joints: 1. ball and socket 2. hinge joint 3. pivot joint 4. gliding joint Objectives: Observe and find joints in the human skeleton. Identify and name examples fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. Give examples of: ball and socket joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, gliding joint. Describe the movement permitted by each type of synovial joint using the following terms: flexion, extension, rotation, abduction, adduction. Draw a labelled diagram of a synovial joint and identify the following features: joint capsule, ligaments, articular cartilage, synovial fluid, synovial membrane. Materials you will need: Access to a human skeleton or a model human skeleton Models of joints, if available Skeleton atlas and charts Procedure and Questions: Q1: Fixed or immovable joints are held together by a tough fibrous material. Because of this anatomists also call them fibrous joints. Carefully observe the following areas: Skull, lower end of vertebral column, ribcage and try to find the immovable joints. Name all the immovable joints that you can find Q2: Slightly movable joints have a pad of cartilage between the bones that form this type of joint. Because of this anatomists also call them cartilaginous joints. Look at the vertebral column and the pelvis to find examples of cartilaginous joints. Describe the positions of cartilaginous joints Page

49 The image part with relationship ID rid46 was not found in the file. Figure 1. Joint Types Q3: The movement the joint between each vertebra permits is small, yet we can bend our backs and achieve considerable movement. Explain how we achieve this considerable movement in our vertebral column..... Page

50 Q4: Both males and females have cartilaginous joints in the pelvis. Explain why the cartilaginous joint in the female pelvis is more flexible than that in a male..... Q5: What could cause this change in flexibility?.... Freely movable joints are lubricated by synovial fluid. Because of this anatomists also call them synovial joints. Most freely movable joints are found in the appendicular skeleton. Observe the upper and lower limbs. Q6: List examples of ball and socket joints. Q7: List examples of hinge joints.. Q8: List examples of gliding joints. A pivot joint is made up of a ring of bone which can twist round a bony process or peg. Find the pivot joint in the axial skeleton. Q9: Name the bones forming the pivot joint and describe the movement the joint allows..... Q10: Name the bones involved in a: a. Shoulder Joint b. Hip Joint.. c. These two joints are of the same type. What do we call this type of joint?... d. Compare the range of movement the shoulder joint allows with the range of movement the hip joint allows.... Q11: Give the meaning of the following terms: a. Flexion. b. Extension. c. Rotation... d. Abduction e. Adduction Page

51 Q12: Complete the following table: Joint name Bones in joint Type of movement Range of movement Elbow Knee Ankle Wrist Thumb Q13: You can freely move your knee joint. We call such a freely moving joint a synovial joint. Synovial joints all have the following parts: bone, joint capsule, synovial membrane, articular cartilage, synovia/fluid, ligaments. Draw a large, clear, labelled diagram of a knee joint. Page

52 Q14: Briefly describe the structure of each of the following features of this synovial joint and state the function of each structure. a. Joint capsule... b. Synovial membrane... c. Articular cartilage d. Synovial fluid.. e. Ligament.. Return any equipment to the distribution tray. Clean up any mess you have made. Now go back to the objectives listed at the start of this activity and make sure you have achieved them all. If you are unhappy with your achievement of any objective, then discuss your problem with your teacher. The image part with relationship ID rid46 was not found in the file. Page

53 Practical Six: Fast or Slow Twitch? Our skeletal muscles are composed of two types of fibres, described as slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres. As their name suggests, slow-twitch fibres are those that contract gradually. In doing so, they produce little power but are resistant to fatigue. This makes slow-twitch fibres ideal for situations where endurance is important. Fast-twitch fibres on the other hand are suitable for short bursts of activity. They contract more quickly and in doing so they produce more power. What you need: Person Stopwatch Wall Procedure and Questions: The aim of this activity is to determine the muscle fibre composition of one of the muscles in your thigh the quadriceps muscle. To do this, you will have to do a wall sit. A wall sit is when you stand with your back against a wall, then slowly slide down the wall into a seated position so that your thighs are parallel to the ground. Your back should still be against the wall. In this position your muscle fibres will be trying to shorten but will not be able to do so completely. These muscle contractions will enable you to roughly determine the proportions of slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibres you have in your upper legs. Work in pairs, one person acting as subject, the other as timer, and then swap the roles. Move to a clear section of wall, lean against the wall and then assume the wall sit position with thighs parallel to the floor. Your partner should time how long you are able to hold the position. Stop when you can no longer tolerate the burning sensation in your upper legs. However, do not hold the position for more than two minutes. Record the time you were able to maintain the wall sit position. Change roles and time your partner doing the wall sit. Compare your time with the times in Table 6.1 and determine the most likely composition of the fibres in your upper leg muscles. Page

54 Table 6.1 Type of muscle fibre and ability to wall sit Time of wall sit Less than 30 seconds Type of muscle fibre It is likely that you have more fast-twitch than slow-twitch fibres in your upper leg muscles. More than 30 seconds but less than a minute It is likely that around 50% of the fibres in your upper leg muscles are slow twitch. The closer you approach one minute; the nearer the number of slow-twitch fibres is to 50%. More than a minute It is likely your upper leg muscles consist mainly of slow-twitch fibres Draw up a suitable table and record the results for all class members. Q1: Were you surprised by just how difficult holding the wall sit position was?. Explain what was happening to your muscle fibres while you were in this position..... Q2: Make a list of the types of activities that would use fast-twitch fibres and those that would use slow-twitch... Page

55 Q3: In studying the class data: (a) does it appear that students who participate in sports or activities that require endurance are better able to hold the wall sit position?.... (b) does it appear that students who participate in sports or activities that require short bursts of energy did not last as long in this activity?.... Q4: Write a short paragraph outlining the difference between slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres and the activities for which each would be suited Page

56 Practical Seven: Relationships between Bone, Muscle & Some Other Tissues It is very difficult to think of muscles and bones as separate, unrelated systems. For one of these systems to operate properly it needs the cooperation of the other. How these systems are linked, their structure, and the tissues involved are important aspects of your study of human function Objectives: 1. Identify the interrelationships between muscles and bones. 2. Identify tendons of a chicken wing, ligaments and cartilage in the chicken wing. 3. Explain relationships found through the dissection of a bird wing to the homologous structures in humans Materials You Will Need: A fresh or defrosted chicken wing Dissecting tray Forceps Sharp Pins Probe Prepared slides of striated muscle, fibrous connective tissue and cartilage. Scalpel Dissecting scissors, sharp Microscope Microscope slides and cover slips Newspaper Access to human skeleton and x-rays Procedure and Questions: Set up your microscope and equipment ready to prepare and view the fresh mounts. Place the chicken wing on the dissecting tray as in photograph 1 on the next page. Starting from the single bone use the scissors to cut the skin longitudinally, or down, the length of the wing. Pin back the skin and view the exposed muscle. Examine the excised skin and exposed muscle. Q1: Fatty deposits may be present under the surface of the skin. What might be the purpose of this tissue? Q2: Observe the muscle tissue and describe its appearance and colour Q3: Do you notice any tissue surrounding or covering the surface of the muscle? What might be the function of this tissue? Page

57 Photograph 1: Chicken wing showing surface features and position of first incisions. Q4: Remove a very small piece of muscle with the forceps and scalpel. Smear this tissue onto a fresh microscope slide. Prepare a fresh mount and place this on the microscope stage and view under the low power. Sketch and describe the appearance of this tissue and any noticeable features. Change to high power and add any other details to your diagrams Q5: If prepared striated muscle slides are available compare the structures to those of the chicken tissue. Describe any similarities or differences Clean up the slides and return to the dissection. Page

58 Photograph 2: Shows the tissues exposed back from the bone. Labels show the main exposed tissue areas. Q6: Use the scalpel to cut the muscle tissue away from the bone down the length of the upper wing and continue to the end of the lower wing. Pin back the tissue to expose the bone and other structures. Trace a muscle from the upper part of the wing to the lower part of the wing. At the end, where the muscle inserts into the bone, you should see a shiny white tissue. Cut away excess muscle tissue until the white tissue is exposed. This tissue is called a tendon. What might be the function of the tendon? Q7: Remove as much tissue as possible from the join between the upper part of the wing and the lower part of wing. You should see another white shiny tissue. This tissue is a ligament. What might be the function of the ligament? Q8: Separate the upper and lower wing bone at the joint by cautious scalpel dissection. A gristly, slippery tissue should be present between the bones at the joint. This tissue is cartilage. State the function or functions of cartilage tissue in this position Page

59 Q9: To what part of the human skeleton does the chicken wing correspond? Q10: Summarise the data you collected in this exercise by listing the tissue names, and describing the structure and function of each. Tissue Name Structure Function Q12: How is the structure and function of each tissue related to the structure and function of the other tissues you have identified? Clean your dissection board and wrap chicken pieces in newspaper Return any equipment to the distribution tray. Clean up any mess you have created on your workspace. Now go back to the objectives listed at the start of this activity and make sure you have achieved them all. The image part with relationship ID rid46 was not found in the file. Page