Analysis of 24/7 Sobriety Program SCRAM Participant DUI Offense Recidivism

Transcription

1 Moutai Plais Evaluatio, LLC Aalysis of 24/7 Sobriety Program SCRAM Participat DUI Offese Recidivism Prepared for: Marty J. Jackley, Attorey Geeral South Dakota Lee Axdahl, Director Office of Highway Safety South Dakota Departmet of Public Safety Prepared by: Rolad Loudeburg, M.P.H. Gregg Drube, M.A. Les Youg, M.B.A. 201 North Mai P.O. Box 530 Salem, SD Phoe:

2 1 BACKGROUND This aalysis examies ad describes idividuals ad outcomes for DUI offeders placed o Secure Cotiuous Remote Moitor (SCRAM) system as part of the South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Program. The South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Program started as a pilot project i Jauary I 2007 the South Dakota Legislature authorized the creatio of a statewide 24/7 Sobriety Program. The program requires DUI offeders to demostrate sobriety through moitored sobriety testig. This program developed i direct respose to the overwhelmig eed to address repeat impaired drivig offeders i South Dakota. Due to the log distaces that offeders had to travel for i perso breath testig, i 2005 the program bega itegratig SCRAM techology as a pilot project i a umber of South Dakota couties. Sice the, SCRAM device usage has expaded throughout South Dakota ad is beig used by a wide array of offeders. The 24/7 Sobriety Program is admiistered state-wide by the South Dakota Attorey Geeral s Office. Alcohol Moitorig Systems (AMS) moitors data collected by SCRAM devices ad geerally provides daily electroic actio reports to participatig Sheriff Offices whe there is a verified positive BAC readig or a tamper idicatio. Delayed reportig may occur o weekeds ad holidays. The Court may sactio a offeder for those violatios. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Impaired drivig is a serious problem i the Uited States. I 2010, 1.41 millio arrests occurred for drivig uder the ifluece of alcohol offeses (FBI, 2011). Statistics from the Natioal Highway Traffic Safety Admiistratio (NHSTA, 2012) shows 32,885 traffic fatalities i I that same year, South Dakota experieced 140 fatal traffic crashes with 46 (33%) of the crashes ivolvig drivers with BAC of.01 or higher (NHSTA, 2012). Betwee 2010 ad 2012 there were approximately 8,800 aual drivig uder the ifluece (DUI) arrests i South Dakota (SD Uified Judicial System, 2013). Approximately 30 percet of DUI arrests each year ivolve repeat offeders (Simpso, Mayhew, & Beiress, 1996). Repeat offeders are over represeted i fatal traffic crashes (Fell, 1995). Each year about 1% of all licesed drivers are arrested for a DUI offese ad approximately 1/3 of all DUI arrests are repeat offeders (Fell, 1995). Attempts to reduce DUI ivism are typically pursued through broad methods icludig the passage ad eforcemet of laws remediatig offeders ad through a combiatio of sactios, educatio, ad treatmet (Hedlud, 1995). Traditioal setecig sactios available to the judiciary have ot bee particularly successful with DUI first offeders ad are eve less successful with repeat DUI offeders (Wallace, 2008). The South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Program developed i direct respose to the eed to address repeat impaired drivig offeses i South Dakota (Loudeburg, Drube, & Leoardso. 2010, p 1). Iitiated i Jauary of 2005, this otraditioal pilot project required participats to demostrate abstiece from alcohol by reportig to the local couty sheriff s office twice a day ad passig a portable breath test. Participats who could ot demostrate complete sobriety or did ot show up for the test were immediately retured to jail (Log, 2009). 1

3 Some participats could ot get to the testig site at the prescribed times due to odd work schedules or the distace to the testig site (40 to 50 miles or more to the testig site) I additio, some rural couties lacked sufficiet persoel to do the testig twice a day (Log, 2009). Secure Cotiuous Remote Alcohol Moitorig (SCRAM) bracelets were issued to participats i couties lackig the persoel to support testig twice a day (Log, 2009). I 2007, the South Dakota legislature authorized ad fuded the South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Project statewide which icluded the use of SCRAM bracelets. Today 61 of South Dakotas 66 couties participate i the program (South Dakota Office of the Attorey Geeral, 2014). These couties cover over 90 percet of the state s populatio (Log, 2009). O September 16, 2009, the South Dakota Supreme Court determied that the methodology utilized i the SCRAM bracelet met the evidetiary stadard for the admissibility of scietific evidece (State v. Lemler 774 N.W. 2d 272, 2009 SD 86). Curretly, more tha 400 SCRAM bracelets are i daily use i South Dakota. The Secure Cotiuous Remote Moitor (SCRAM) system from Alcohol Moitorig Systems of Littleto, Colorado is a akle bracelet that measures alcohol cosumptio 24 hours a day, 7 days week by measurig alcohol excreted through the ski i the form of costat uoticeable perspiratio (Robertso, Valaar, & Simpso, 2006). About 1% of cosumed alcohol is excreted through the ski (Swift, 2003). Idividuals excrete cosumed alcohol through the ski at differet rates because of idividual differeces i the thickess, temperature, ad hydratio state of the exteral most layer of ski the stratum coreum (Aderso & Hiastala, 2006). I laboratory dose experimets, Trasdermal Alcohol Cocetratios (TAC) icrease liearly as a fuctio of the amout of alcohol cosumed ad correlate across participats with breath alcohol cocetratio ad blood alcohol cocetratio but raw data is ot a estimate of BrAC or BAC (Barett, Tidey, Murphy, Swift, & Colby, 2011; Doughtery, Charles, Achesto, Joh, Furr, & Hill-Kapturczak, 2012; Marques & McKight, 2009; Sakai, Mikulich-Gilbertso, Log, & Coway, 2006). The peak cocetratio of alcohol usig TAC trail BAC ad BrAC peak cocetratios by 1.5 to 3.0 hours ad have lower peaks (Aderso & Hiastala, 2006; Barett, Tidey, Murphy, Swift, & Colby, 2011; Marques & McKight, 2009; Sakai, Mikulich-Gilbertso, Log, & Coway, 2006). TAC correctly idetifies alcohol cosumptio i 80 to 88 percet of drikig episodes i both laboratory ad field studies (Barett, Tidey, Murphy, Swift, & Colby, 2011; Marques & McKight, 2009; Sakai, Mikulich-Gilbertso, Log, & Coway, 2006). False positives i laboratory studies have ot bee foud (Marques & McKight, 2009; Sakai, Mikulich-Gilbertso, Log, & Coway, 2006). False positive i field studies were ot ecoutered (Barett, Tidey, Murphy, Swift, & Colby, 2011; Marques & McKight, 2009; (Sakai, Mikulich-Gilbertso, Log, & Crowley, 2006). Cofoudig blips from household chemicals ad persoal groomig items cotaiig alcohol which might be iterpreted as a positive ca be idetified by the magitude, absorptio speed ad duratio characteristics of the area uder the TAC curve ad ruled out as drikig episodes ( Margues & McKight, 2009). Based o mothly data from voluteers workig i hair solos, auto shops, costructio sites ad other eviromets cotaiig products which might be capable of producig positive results from other tha alcohol cosumptio, AMS estimates the false positive rate is ruig at 0.12 percet (1 i 800) over 12 years of testig (Giles, 2009). About 15 to 24 percet of drikig episodes do ot reach the curret.02 cut off poit ad go udetected (Barett, Tidey, Murphy, Swift, & Colby, 2011; Marques & McKight, 2009). The curret validity ad the level of accuracy of trasdermal alcohol testig permit it to be used as a screeig tool to verify compliace with orders of abstiece accordig to Robertso, Valaar, & Simpso. (2006, p 9). Bock (2003) cocluded that the [Scram] product is able to detect circumvetio of alcohol test 2

4 samplig, reliably esures that test samples are from the iteded test subjects, ad detects drikig episodes aroud the clock regardless of subject s schedule or locatio (p. 4). I 2009, Flago ad Cheesema published a retrospective study of SCRAM bracelet users ad a matched compariso group who did ot wear the SCRAM device. There were 114 SCRAM users ad 261 i the matched compariso group. The average umber of days SCRAM was wor by a participat was 70 days with a rage of 8 to 212 days. Oly 25 percet of the sample used SCRAM for 90 days or more. Of the 114 SCRAM users oly four (3.5%) ivated while wearig the bracelet ad SCRAM did ot reduce the probability of ivism for offeders with o previous DUI offeses. Whe the SCRAM devise was wor by offeders with oe or more prior DUIs for less tha 90 days, the overall ivism rate was the same for SCRAM users (21.7%) as the compariso group (21.2%). The patter of ivism varied over time for the two groups. At 364 days 33% of the SCRAM users had ivated compared to 57% of the compariso group. At 648 days 30% of SCRAM user ad 32% of the compariso group had ivated while by 1000 days the tred had reversed. Whe the SCRAM devise was wor by offeders with oe or more prior DUIs for 90 days or more, SCRAM user ivism rate was 10.3% compared to 21.2% for the compariso group. The results did ot vary over time (Flago & Cheesema, 2009). 3 DESCRIPTION OF PARTICIPANTS AND DEMOGRAPHICS The participats icluded i this aalysis cosist of 833 DUI offeders placed o SCRAM betwee December 2006 ad September 2010 ad had the SCRAM device removed as of 10/31/2010. As of 12/31/2012, the cutoff date for data collectio for this aalysis, a miimum of two years of post-scram data had bee collected for each participat. Of the 833 study participats, 670 (80.4%) were male ad 163 (19.6%) were female. The followig table shows participat geder by DUI level. Number ad Percetage by DUI Level ad Geder DUI Level Male Female All N Row % Col % N Row % Col % N Col % % 17.0% % 22.1% % % 46.9% % 51.5% % % 29.4% % 21.5% % % 5.4% % 4.3% % % 1.3% % 0.6% % All % %

5 The mea age of all participats at SCRAM Off date was 36.3 years (stdev = 11.8 years).the mea age of male participats at SCRAM Off (36.6, stdev = 12.0) was slightly older tha the mea age of female participats (35.0, stdev = 11.0). The followig table summarizes each DUI level by age ad geder. Age at SCRAM OFF Date mea (stdev, N) DUI Level Male Female All (12.3, 114) 34.2 (12.7, 36) 35.5 (12.4, 150) (12.2, 314) 33.4 (10.3, 84) 35.2 (11.9, 398) (11.5, 197) 38.7 (10.9, 35) 38.1 (11.4, 232) (11.3, 36) 38.4 ( 7.8, 7) 39.1 (10.8, 43) (11.5, 9) 47.0 ( NA, 1) 39.3 (11.2, 10) All 36.6 (12.0, 670) 35.0 (11.0, 163) 36.3 (11.8, 833) 4 DESCRIPTION OF SCRAM PARTICIPATION 4.1 AVERAGE OF DAYS ON PROGRAM BY DUI The mea umber of days of SCRAM moitorig varied by DUI level with lower levels of DUI offeses havig a lower umber of days moitored o average. Thus, idividuals with a DUI 1 offese i the sample were moitored for a average of 84.8 days ad a media of 32 days. Idividuals placed o SCRAM with a DUI 3 offese were moitored for a average of days with a media of 186 days moitored. SCRAM: Days Moitored DUI Level N mea stdev Quartile 1 media Quartile or DISCUSSION OF CONFIRMED POSITIVES, TAMPERS, COMBINED The umber of idividuals havig a cofirmed positive test result ( positive ) while wearig the SCRAM was 46 (5.5%) of the 833 SCRAM wearers. A additioal 167 idividual (20.1%) had at least oe tamper evet ( tamper ) ad 193 idividuals (23.3%) had at least oe tamper or positive while wearig 4

6 the SCRAM (twety idividual participats had both a tamper ad positive while wearig the SCRAM device). It should be oted that 640 idividual (76.8%) had either a tamper or a cofirmed positive reported while beig moitored. The tables ad graphs below provide a summary of the cofirmed positives ad tampers of idividual while wearig the SCRAM device. Tampers were recorded by 167 of 833 SCRAM users (20.1%) ad had 338 tamperig evets. 1 tamper 12% o tampers 80% tampers 20% 2 tampers 4% 3 to 4 tampers 2% 5+ tampers 2% Of those idividuals with a cofirmed tamper, 60% (101 of 167) of the idividuals had oly oe tamper (2.0 evets per participat with a cofirmed tamperig evet). N tampers N % of total

7 Positives were recorded by 46 of 833 offeders (5.5%) with a total of 88 positive alcohol evets reported (1.9 evets per participat with a cofirmed drikig evet). o positives 94% positives 6% 1 pos. 4% 2-3 pos. 1% 4+ pos. 1% Of the 46 idividuals with a positive alcohol evet, oly 12 idividuals had more tha oe positive alcohol evet reported. SCRAM: N Positive Alcohol Evets N Positives N % of total

8 Positives ad/or tampers were recorded by 193 of 833 offeders (23.2%) ad had 426 evets (2.2 evets per offeder). Of all participats, 20 (2.4%) offeders had both a tamperig evet ad a cofirmed positive recorded. SCRAM: N Tampers ad Positives N tampers ad positives N % of total DEFINITION/ANALYSIS OF RECIDIVISM Recidivism was defied i two ways for the aalysis. The first aalysis defies ivism as ay DUI arrest foud i the South Dakota Uified Judicial System database from arrest to ext arrest for all participats (=833). Thus, the first aalysis icludes the time i which the participat was moitored by the SCRAM device as part of the exposure time i the aalysis. Five participats had a DUI arrest that occurred betwee the SCRAM ON date ad the SCRAM OFF date. The last arrest data prior to SCRAM moitorig for a SCRAM participat i the sample (=833) occurred i August Cotrols were selected from the South Dakota Uified Judicial System database by DUI level that had arrest dates that fell betwee August 2003 ad August 2010, iclusive. I additio, idividuals i the cotrol group did ot participate i ay form of moitorig as part of the South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Program. The followig table ad graphs provides a compariso of ivism rates by DUI level ad year from the iitial arrest to future arrest. DUI re-arrest rates for SCRAM participats is smaller i the iitial year followig arrest tha cotrols all DUI levels except DUI 1, but this period of time icludes a substatial portio of time i which participats were moitored by the SCRAM device. DUI 1 SCRAM participats had a larger ivism rates compared to cotrols at all four years. DUI 2 SCRAM participats ivism rates rose i the secod year followig arrest ad approximately equaled the cotrol group rate at three years post arrest. By the fourth year from arrest, ivism rates for SCRAM participats surpasses the cotrols for DUI 1 ad DUI 2 ad is early equal for DUI 3. 7

9 Cotrols ad SCRAM Participats by Year Oe Year Compariso of SCRAM Participats to Cotrols by DUI Level at 1, 2, 3, ad 4 Years Post Iitial Arrest Date ( = 833) DUI 1 DUI 2 DUI 3 DUI 4 or 5 % Cotrols 26,952 1, % 3, % % % SCRAM % % % % Two Year Cotrols 26,952 2, % 3, % % % SCRAM % % % % Three Year Cotrols 24,826 2, % 3, % % % SCRAM % % % % Four Year Cotrols 21,538 3, % 3, % % % SCRAM % % % % % % % Survival Curves for SCRAM Participats Compared to Cotrols by DUI Level at 1, 2, 3, ad 4 Years post SCRAM ON Date ( = 833) For the secod aalysis, ivism was defied as the first DUI arrest o or after the SCRAM removal date (SCRAM OFF date) as foud i the South Dakota Uified Judicial System database. Participats arrested for a DUI while wearig the SCRAM device (SCRAM ON) were ot icluded i the aalysis sice the purpose of this aalysis was focused o DUI ivism of SCRAM participats ( = 829 sice 4 participats had a ivism DUI recorded i the South Dakota Uified Judicial System Database betwee the SCRAM O date ad SCRAM Off date) after removal of the SCRAM moitorig device. 8

10 Idividuals placed o SCRAM with a DUI 1 offese had higher rates of ivism at 1, 2 ad 3 years. Idividuals with DUI 2 ad 3 offese were foud to have a rather low ivism rates at 1 ad 2 year post SCRAM participatio with rates at 4% after 1 year ad 9% at 2 years. After 4 years, a ivism rate for DUI 1, 2 ad 3 offeders was foud to be betwee 18.6% ad 19.3%. Recidivism by DUI level ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest DUI Level 1 year (365 days) 2 years (730 days) 3 years (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) DUI1 8.2% (12 of 146) 14.4% (21 of 146) 18.9% (18 of 95) 18.6% ( 8 of 43) DUI2 4.3% (17 of 398) 9.3% (37 of 398) 15.9% (41 of 258) 19.3% (23 of 119) DUI3 3.9% ( 9 of 232) 9.5% (22 of 232) 16.7% (28 of 168) 19.3% (16 of 83) DUI4 or DUI5 7.5% ( 4 of 53) 11.3% ( 6 of 53) 17.9% ( 7 of 39) 16.7% ( 3 of 18) Recidivism rates by geder were similar after 1 ad 2 years betwee males ad females. At three ad four years post SCRAM participatio, females had a 5 percetage poit higher ivism rate tha males. It should be oted that the sample size for females at years 3 was 108 ad at year 4 was 47 idividuals ad thus cautio should be oted i drawig coclusios about geder differeces util a larger sample size is available. Recidivism by Geder ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest Geder 1 year (365 days) 2 years (730 days) 3 years (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) Female 5.6% ( 9 of 162) 9.9% ( 16 of 162) 20.4% ( 22 of 108) 23.4% ( 11 of 47) Male 4.9% ( 33 of 667) 10.5% ( 70 of 667) 15.9% ( 72 of 452) 18.1% ( 39 of 216) Some variatios i ivism rates ca be oted i the table below. Idividuals betwee the age of ad have the highest ivism rates at each year (excludig the year olds due to small sample size). It should also be oted that the year old age group ivism rate at 2 years was documeted as 12.6%. Oe would expect the year old age group to have rather high ivism rates based o the risk takig behavior of the age group ad documeted DUI offeder ages. Oe might speculate that the idividuals i the age group of are sigificatly differet tha the year olds or the year olds, which might idicate a potetial differece i the level of substace abuse ad addictio withi this sub-group. 9

11 Recidivism by Age at SCRAM OFF ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest Age 1 year (365 days) 2 years (730 days) 3 years (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) % ( 1 of 20) 15.0% ( 3 of 20) 26.7% ( 4 of 15) 27.3% ( 3 of 11) % ( 20 of 294) 10.9% ( 32 of 294) 20.5% ( 39 of 190) 22.7% ( 22 of 97) % ( 6 of 215) 8.8% ( 19 of 215) 11.4% ( 17 of 149) 14.3% ( 9 of 63) % ( 11 of 167) 12.6% ( 21 of 167) 19.0% ( 23 of 121) 20.0% ( 12 of 60) % ( 4 of 98) 11.2% ( 11 of 98) 14.0% ( 8 of 57) 16.7% ( 4 of 24) % ( 0 of 35) 0.0% ( 0 of 35) 10.7% ( 3 of 28) 0.0% ( 0 of 8) Variatios i ivism rates were oted by umber of days moitored o the SCRAM device. Idividuals with lower levels of moitorig had higher levels of ivism as measured at each year post removal of the device. Recidivism by Days Moitored ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest Days Moitored 1 year (365 days) 2 years (730 days) 3 years (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) % (11 of 102) 17.6% (18 of 102) 24.7% (20 of 81) 23.8% (10 of 42) % (14 of 201) 11.9% (24 of 201) 20.4% (31 of 152) 20.7% (18 of 87) % (12 of 219) 10.5% (23 of 219) 13.7% (21 of 153) 19.2% (14 of 73) % ( 5 of 222) 8.1% (18 of 222) 13.6% (18 of 132) 16.0% (8 of 50) % ( 0 of 85) 3.5% ( 3 of 85) 9.5% ( 4 of 42) 0.0% ( 0 of 11) 10

12 Compariso of ivism rates for idividuals with tampers ad positive alcohol evets compared to idividuals without tampers or positive alcohol evets idetified lower rates of ivism for idividuals who had tampers or positive alcohol evets documeted while moitored by the SCRAM device at 1, 2, 3 ad 4 years after the SCRAM device was removed. Recidivism by Tampers ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest Tamper 1 year (365 days) 2 years (730 days) 3 years (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) No Tampers 5.3% ( 35 of 662) 10.7% ( 71 of 662) 16.8% ( 74 of 440) 18.2% ( 38 of 209) Tampers 4.2% ( 7 of 167) 9.0% ( 15 of 167) 16.7% ( 20 of 120) 22.2% ( 12 of 54) Recidivism by Positive Alcohol Evets ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest 1 year 2 years 3 years (365 days) (730 days) (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) Positive No Positive 5.1% ( 40 of 783) 10.5% (82 of 783) 17.0% (90 of 528) 19.4% (48 of 248) Positives 4.3% ( 2 of 46) 8.7% ( 4 of 46) 12.5% (4 of 32) 13.3% ( 2 of 15) Tamper/Positives Tamper/Positive Alcohol Evets ad Exposure ( = 829) Exposure: SCRAM Off date to future arrest 1 year 2 years 3 years (365 days) (730 days) (1,095 days) 4 years (1,460 days) No Tamper/ Positives 5.5% ( 35 of 636) 11.0% ( 70 of 636) 17.3% ( 73 of 421) 19.0% ( 38 of 200) Tamper/Positives 3.6% ( 7 of 193) 8.3% ( 16 of 193) 15.1% ( 21 of 139) 19.0% ( 12 of 63) 6 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION Substatial research has supported the effectiveess of the SCRAM techology to idetify alcohol cosumptio evets as oted i the iitial sectio of this report. Other published articles ad reports have documeted the effectiveess of the device to moitor offeders while the device is wor by the offeder. To date there have bee few studies of ivism behaviors of SCRAM participats that examie ivism oce the bracelet has bee removed. A literature search idetified a small hadful of published research fidigs that have followed ad tracked the outcomes of SCRAM participats oce the device is removed. The purpose of this aalysis was to documet DUI ivism offese rates for SCRAM bracelet users who participated i the South Dakota 24/7 Sobriety Program. The results preseted above are based o a retrospective review of SCRAM participats moitored betwee 2006 ad September 2010 with a SCRAM device removal date of October, A miimum of 2 years of exposure i which to examie ivism was available for all participats. The fidigs suggest that ivism rates decrease as the umber of days moitored icreases at 1 year ad 2 year post moitorig. This ivism rate patter is cosistet with the coclusios of Flago ad Cheesma (2009) who suggest that it appears that the itervetio must last at least 90 days to reduce the probability of future re-offeses. The ivism patter may be more complex as time passes. While those moitored for loger periods of time have lower rates at all follow-up years, 11

13 the ivism patter begis to rise as time passes. The data available for aalysis icludes a full 2 years of data o the etire sample ad adequate sample sizes for aalysis at years 3 ad 4 post arrest. A complete picture of ivism patters at 3 ad 4 years is emergig based o the ivism data available, ad that data idicates that the ivism rates for DUI 1 ad 2 SCRAM participats equals or exceeds the cotrol group rates at 3 years post arrest. Recidivism rates for DUI 3 SCRAM participats approximately equals the rate of ivism for cotrols at 4 years post arrest. Thus, the data suggests that reductios i ivism iitially gaied durig the SCRAM moitorig period ad i the iitial years after removal of the device are ot sustaied over time. Aother fidig that warrats further exploratio ad cosideratio is the ivism patters of idividuals i the 40 to 49 age group. The ivism patter of this group was similar to the ivism patter for idividuals ages 21 to 29 years. Based o the ivism patter for the 40 to 49 year old age group it would appear that this group is at a elevated risk for ivism. The data set used for aalysis did ot iclude data o diagosis or treatmet ad thus the level of addictio ad/or diagosis was ot a part of the aalysis. Oe could speculate that the characteristics of this age group might be fudametally differet ad iclude idividuals that require higher levels of treatmet. I coclusio, the data examied as part of this aalysis supports the effectiveess of the SCRAM device as a tool for moitorig alcohol cosumptio of offeders while the device is wor by the offeder. The aalysis of the data, however, idicates that oce the device has bee removed, behavior chage is ot sustaied, as over time ivism rates begi to approach or exceed the ivism rates of cotrols. 12

14 7 REFERENCES Aderso, J., & Hiastala, M. (2006). The kietics of trasdermal ethaol exchage. Joural of Applied Physiology, 100(2), Barett, N., Tidey, J., Murphy, J., Swift, R., & Colby, S. (2011). Cotigecy maagemet for alcohol use reductio: A pilot study usig a trasdermal alcohol sesor. Drug ad Alcohol Depedece, 118, Bock, S. (2003). Michiga DOC rus beta test of ew remotetrasdermal alcohol moitorig system. Joural of Offeder Moitorig, 2(witer/Sprig). Doughtery, D., Charles, N., Achesto, A., Joh, S., Furr, R., & Hill-Kapturczak, N. (2012). Comparig the detectio of trasdermal ad breath alcohol cocetratios durig periods of alcohol cosumptio ragig from moderate drikig to bige drikig. Experimetal ad Cliical Psychopharmacology, Advaced olie publicatio (Jue 18). doi: /a FBI. (2011, September). Crime i the Uited States, Retrieved from cjis/ucr/crime-i-the-us.-2010/persos-arrested Fell, J. C. (1995). Repeat DWI offeders i the Uited States. I Traffic-Tech: Techology Trasfer Series (Number 85). Washigto, DC: Natioal Highway Traffic Safety Admiistratio. Flago, V., & Cheesema, F. (2009). Effectiveess of the SCRAM alcohol moitorig device: A prelimiary test. Drug Court Review, VI(2), Giles, J. (2009). No drikig: We've got you tagged. New Scietist, 204(2737). Retrieved from Academic Search Primier. ( ) Hedlud, J. (1995). Meta-aalysis helps to defie the policy-relevace of drik drivig research. Addictio, 90, Log, L. (2009). The 24/7 sobriety project. The Public Lawyer, 17, 2-5. Loudeburg, R., Drube, G., & Leoardso, G. (2011). South Dakota 24/7 sobriety program evaluatio fidigs report. Retrieved from Marques, P., & McKight, S. (2009). Field ad laboratory alcohol detectio with 2 types of trasdermal devices. Alcoholism: Cliical ad Experimetal Research, 33(4), doi: /j x NHSTA. (2012). Alcohol-impaired drivig. I Traffic Safety Facts:2010 Data (DOT HS 811 Washigto). Washigto, DC: Natioal Highway Traffic Safety Admiistratio: Natioal Ceter for Statistics ad Aalysis. Robertso, R., Valaar, W., & Simpso, H. (2006). Cotiuous trasdermal alcohol moitorig: A primer for crimial justice professioals. Ottawa, Caada: Traffic Ijury Research Foudatio. Sakai, J., Mikulich-Gilbertso, S., Log, R., & Crowley, T. (2006). Validity of trasdermal alcohol moitorig: Fixed ad self-regulated dosig. Alcoholism: Cliical ad Experimetal Research, 30(1), doi:10:1111/j x Simpso, H., Mayhew, D., & Beiress, D. (1996). Dealig with hard core drikig drivers. Ottawa, Caada: Traffic Ijury Research Foudatio. 13

15 South Dakota Office of the Attorey Geeral. (.d.). 24/7 map of couties. Retrieved July 30, 2012, from South Dakota Uified Judicial System. (2013). South Dakota Courts State Fiscal Year 2013 Aual Statistical Report of the South Dakota Uified Judicial System, from Swift, R. (2003). Direct measuremet of alcohol ad its metabolites. Addictio, 98 (Suppl. 2), Wallace, D. (2008). Do DWI courts work? I C. Flago, A. McDowell, C. Cambell, & K. Kauder (Eds.), Future Treds i State Courts Williamsburg, VA: Natioal Ceter for State Courts. 14