Consensus Points on Language Goals

Transcription

1 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Cnsensus Pints n Language Gals 1. All f ur IEPs shuld have PLEPs, NEEDs, GOALs and Objectives that are internally cnsistent ( flw ). All parts f IEP must be internally cnsistent and relate highly t each ther Internal cnsistency means that: Data (numbers) match acrss evaluatin reprts, prgress reprts, IEP PLEPs, Gals and bjectives Specific language behavirs identified as needs in evaluatin reprts are the same language behavirs that shw up in PLEPS (prgress and baseline), and as gals and bjectives Specific language behavirs (wrding) match acrss evaluatin reprts, prgress reprts, IEP PLEPs, needs, gals and bjectives Target language behavirs shuld nt simply appear in IEP gals r bjectives withut being described in the PLEP statements. Data in PLEPS and ptential target language behavirs can cme frm a variety f surces: Initial evaluatin reprt (fr initial IEP) Criterin-referenced tests (e.g., SCERTS) Authentic assessment like SLP prbes, language samples, etc. 3-year reevaluatin reprt (if timing is right) Prgress reprts prir t annual IEP Other data cllected during therapy Classrm bservatins Teacher/parent interviews fcused n cmmunicatin areas f highest cncern 2. PLEP statements shuld give enugh infrmatin s receiving SLP gets an accurate picture f the student, but be cncise (2-3 paragraphs max.) AND cntain the minimum required cmpnents. PLEP must prvide bjective data fr prgress n prir year s IEP gals and bjectives, and give baselines fr next year s IEP gals and bjectives Minimum cmpnents t signpst: a) Hw disability affects student prgress (participatin) in general ed. curriculum b) Student strengths c) Parent input (may be cmbined with student strengths ) d) PLEP - prgress tward each ld IEP gals and bjectives e) PLEP - baseline fr each new IEP gals and bjectives Optinal cmpnent (but preferred): f) Additinal infrmatin that paints a general picture f child s language skills 1

2 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, The student shuld be able t achieve the target gal in ne academic year (36 weeks) Limit IEP gals (specific language behavirs) t thse the team is pretty sure that the student will be able t learn within ne year. Pretty sure means: In the SLP s r team s prir experience with similar students If the specific student has made/nt made reasnable prgress n IEP gals in the past Realistic expectatins fr specific student If the team is nt sure that the gal can be achieved in ne year, then the gal is prbably: T general r t brad Needs t be mre specific and clearly described Needs t be brken dwn int smaller skills that the student has a chance t learn Other? This als relates t priritizatin Gals that can be achieved in ne year shuld be priritized. Gals shuld nt be cpied verbatim frm year t year If gals change very little r nt at all, that is a signal that they need t be rethught and brken dwn int smaller skills that student has a chance t learn. It s OK t change criterin frm year t year, and keep target language behavir the same (e.g., %; %) 4. IEP language gals and bjectives must be measurable. A gal r bjective must be a behavir that yu (r anyne/stranger) can bserve and cunt. If yu can t cunt it, it shuldn t be a gal r bjective. A gal r bjective can nly be measured if it specifies an bservable language behavir. Stranger test Dead Man test A gal r bjective will have greater likelihd f being measurable IF the SLP has a clear idea f a measurement task that can be used t measure bth baseline and prgress! Think twice befre using the terms age-apprpriate r grade-level in a gal/bjective There are sme prblems with ranges as baseline in PLEPS and end pints in Gals/bjectives: Internal cmpliance mnitr feedback Lack f precisin makes it difficult t determine prgress S, think twice befre using ranges fr a specific language behavir as PLEP r Gal The use f mre specific given cnditins in PLEP statement and measurement task helps t measure student perfrmance n skill mre precisely (e.g., given X level f cuing in Y activity, student perfrmed at Z% ut f 10 pprtunities) 5. IEP gals shuld be limited t the 2 r 3 mst imprtant specific language skills that we want the student t achieve this year. Where d pssible/candidate language gals (behavirs) cme frm: SLP judgments, infrmed by ur experience, training, and mdel f language Pre-referral infrmatin (e.g., Why exactly was student referred fr S/L evaluatin? What specific language behavirs, r lack f, cncerned the team?) Teacher/parent interviews fcused n cmmunicatin areas f highest cncern t them 2

3 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Data cllected fr initial evaluatin reprt r three-year evaluatin Criterin-referenced tests (e.g., SCERTS) Authentic assessment like SLP prbes, language samples, etc. Other data cllected during therapy Classrm bservatins Reference t curriculum and grade-level expectatins (GLE), especially in area f literacy ; these are language skills they need fr successful participatin in classrm. MPS GLE handut 6. Specific gals will usually be better than general gals (and will be mre internally cnsistent with data frm evaluatins, prgress reprts, PLEPs) Specific means: Target language behavir is clearly defined. Target language behavir passes Dead Man test and Stranger test. If the gal is nt a language behavir that the SLP r a stranger can bserve and cunt, then it s t general. SLP has a clear measurement task in mind, in which the target language behavir can be cunted yes it ccurred r n it didn t ccur Many SLPs are cncerned that gals/bjectives measured with a specific test r curriculum are t specific (e.g., Read Naturally; 40/50 Behm cncepts; in 8 th -grade reading curriculum) 7. D nt mix articulatin and language behavirs in ne gal. Intelligibility due t speech sund prductin prblems (including prnunciatin and speaking rate) is nt a language gal it s a functinal utcme measure fr articulatin. See ASHA FCMs. Think twice befre using the term intelligibility t apply t a nn-speech r nn-articulatin situatin. Articulatin/intelligibility and language shuld be separate gals. 8. D nt base IEP language gals n errrs frm nrmed tests. McCauley & Swisher (1984) There is prbably n circumstance in which nrm-referenced tests items can prfitably be used t plan therapy bjectives Targets frm errrs n tests ften d nt pass the s what? test; relates t determining pririty language gals. 9. D nt mix expressive and receptive language target skills in ne gal. Cmprehensin is ften tied t lack f backgrund knwledge/experience and student s general cgnitive abilities Cmprehensin (e.g., directin fllwing, vcabulary) is addressed in all classrm activities by teachers (e.g., apprpriate mdels, visual supprts, scafflds). Terms like understand and cmprehend are ambiguus and nt measurable Cnsider alternatives t receptive language gals: Write functinal gals that fcus n verbal and nnverbal respnses students need t functin successfully in schl setting and academic tasks Place receptive language gals in the Breadth f Curriculum 3

4 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, Think twice befre writing an IEP gal fr Vcabulary Cnsider alternatives t vcabulary gals: Write vcabulary learning strategy gals that fcus n students ability t describe, explain, and demnstrate strategies fr figuring ut the meaning f a wrd student des nt knw. Place vcabulary gals in the Breadth f Curriculum 11. Gals fr ELL students (especially PreK and K) need t take L1 skills int accunt. These students shuld nly be wrking n language behavirs related t their disability, NOT due t their emerging English skills. 12. Language OBJECTIVES must be internally cnsistent with the rest f the IEP, specifically, GOALs. All cnsensus pints fr GOALs apply t bjectives (e.g., measurable) Objectives are the tw r three small steps that will allw the student t mve frm starting pint (n the identified NEED and frm baseline in the PLEP) t the end pint (target number in the GOAL) Therefre, bjectives must relate clearly t the GOAL Objective shuld nt cntain ttally different behavirs (because then they wuldn t relate clearly t the GOAL) 13. D nt have mre than 3 OBJECTIVES under any ne cmmunicatin gal. 14. D nt mix articulatin and language OBJECTIVES under a big cmmunicatin gal. 15. D nt mix expressive and receptive language OBJECTIVES under a big cmmunicatin gal. 4

5 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 PLEPS Rubric fr Language PLEPs, gals and bjectives Required cmpnent f PLEP Sign-pst (e.g., use CAPITAL letters fr bld n this page) 1. Student strengths (incl. parent input): One r tw sentences n the student s cmmunicatin strengths. Parent input must be included. Required cmpnent f PLEP Sign-pst (e.g., use CAPITAL letters fr bld n this page) 2. Hw student s disability affects prgress in general ed. curriculum: One r tw sentences n hw student s specific language needs affect participatin in the classrm. Fr annual IEPs Required cmpnent f PLEP Sign-pst (e.g., use CAPITAL letters fr bld n this page) 3. Present levels f perfrmance: Specific skills t be learned a. End pint (prgress) data fr every S/L gal and bjective n the past year s IEP: Include infrmatin abut where the data cmes frm (e.g., prgress reprt, initial r three-year evaluatin, classrm bservatin, clinician designed prbes during interventin) This number will serve as the bjective measure f hw much prgress the student made n each gal and bjective (specific skills t be learned). Observable, measurable, Stranger Test Relates t measurement task. This list shuld match the pririties that will flw directly int student needs and gals Limit t tp 2 cmmunicatin issues that will be pririty gals fr the next calendar year Parent input shuld be included if pssible. Fr initial and annual IEPs Required cmpnent f PLEP Sign-pst (e.g., use CAPITAL letters fr bld n this page) 3. Present levels f perfrmance: Specific skills t be learned b. Baseline data (starting pint) fr every S/L gal and bjective n next year s IEP: Include infrmatin abut where the data cmes frm (e.g., prgress reprt, initial r three-year evaluatin, classrm bservatin, clinician designed prbes during interventin) This number will serve as baseline (starting pint) frm which t determine target end pints fr each gal and bjective, and frm which t measure prgress (specific skills t be learned). Observable, measurable, Stranger Test Relates t measurement task (see belw) This list shuld match the pririties that will flw directly int student needs and gals Limit t tp 2 cmmunicatin issues that will be pririty gals fr the next calendar year Parent input shuld be included if pssible. 5

6 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Fr initial and annual IEPs Nt required, but may be apprpriate given SLP s persnal preferences/philsphy n hw lengthy and inclusive the PLEP statement shuld be, and/r given specific student and need fr additinal infrmatin (e.g., spurts in language grwth ver past year) Nt necessary t sign-pst 4. Other infrmatin that paints a picture f the student s verall cmmunicatin abilities: This data may cme frm a variety f surces, incl. evaluatin results, prgress reprts, therapy ntes, teacher interviews, etc. This data may r may nt include specific numbers that are an bjective measure the student s abilities n these cmmunicatin skills (ther than gals and bjectives). This data may be mre narrative in nature Cautins: - D nt identify additinal student needs in this sectin, r yu will have t address them as gals r bjectives, and prvide specific baseline data. - List tab wrds: needs - List acceptable wrds: weaknesses, areas fr future fcus, etc. - Entries in this sectin will increase the length f the PLEP. STUDENT NEEDS Required cmpnent f NEEDS Key wrds: Student needs Student needs will cme frm PLEP data, which in turn will cme frm either initial evaluatin (fr initial IEP), r last prgress reprt prir t annual IEP (fr annual IEP). There shuld be a direct relatinship between PLEPs, student NEEDs, and GOALS: - Match the wrding in the NEEDS statement t the wrding in the PLEPS and GOALS in rder t maximize internal cnsistency and flw. The specific student needs will cme frm the SLP s (and team s) judgment abut: - The specific language skills that the student can reasnably achieve within 36 weeks (r ne academic year) - The ne r tw pririty language skills that will be the fcus f the IEP fr the next academic year Each need statement must have a gal The number f gals will depend n the student s needs. 6

7 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 GOALS Required cmpnent f GOAL 1. Directin f change: Key wrds: The student will increase The student will decrease The student will maintain Required cmpnent f GOAL 2. Specific skill r behavir t be changed: This specific skill t be learned will cme frm the SLP s (and team s) judgment abut: - The specific language skill t be learned that the student can reasnably be expected t achieve within 36 weeks (r ne academic year) - GOALS will cnsist f the ne r tw pririty language skills that will be the fcus f the IEP fr the next academic year Observable, measurable, Stranger Test, Dead Man Test Relates t measurement task (see belw) This list shuld match the pririties that flw directly frm student PLEPs and needs Avid mixing expressive and receptive gals, r language and artic/intelligibility gals Required cmpnent f GOAL 3. Expected ending level f perfrmance: Key wrds: Frm (a baseline number) ptinal since baseline is already in PLEP* T (an ending number) This target end pint (a number r cunt ) will cme frm the SLP s judgment abut: - The prgress n the specific language skill that that the student can reasnably be expected t achieve within 36 weeks (r ne academic year) Observable, measurable, Stranger Test, Dead Man Test Measurable means: - The skill t be learned can be bjectively cunted in a given cntext (measurement task) - Observer can watch/listen in the measurement task, and say with cnfidence that either the skill/behavir ccurred (yes) r it did nt (n) - The cunt makes sense. Cunts include: - Percentage increase ver baseline - Percent r number crrect ut f X pprtunities - Rate (number f times skill is bserved per unit f time) - Other: Relates t measurement task Gals shuld match the pririties that flw directly frm student PLEPs and needs, s g back t PLEP t make sure yu have adequate baseline data fr this specific gal. Avid mixing expressive and receptive gals, r language and artic/intelligibility gals *Nte: It is acceptable t include frm statement alng with t (expected level f perfrmance), even thugh the frm (baseline) is already specified in the PLEP relating t the specific GOAL. 7

8 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 OBJECTIVES Required cmpnent f OBJECTIVES 1. Cnditin under which a behavir is perfrmed: Key wrds: Given - A specific set f materials - A setting - A specific level f assistance - An envirnment prvided t the student when the behavir in the bjective is perfrmed) Required cmpnent f OBJECTIVES 2. Specific skill r behavir t be perfrmed: These tw (2) specific skills t be perfrmed will cme frm the SLP s (and team s) judgment abut: - Critical sub-cmpnents f the gal that, if achieved, will ultimately lead t achievement f GOAL within 36 weeks r an academic year - These 2 bjectives shuld flw directly frm student PLEPs Observable, measurable, Stranger Test, Dead Man Test Relates t measurement task This list shuld match the pririties that flw directly frm student PLEPs, needs and GOALs Avid mixing expressive and receptive bjectives, r language and artic/intelligibility bjectives Required cmpnent f OBJECTIVES 3. Criteria f acceptable perfrmance: The target end pints (a number r cunt) fr at least tw (2) bjectives will cme frm the SLP s judgment abut: - The prgress that is reasnable and achievable n this specific skill t be learned within 36 weeks (ne academic year) r less, depending n hw bjectives are sequenced (see belw) Observable, measurable, Stranger Test, Dead Man Test Measurable means: - The skill t be learned can be bjectively cunted in a given cntext (measurement task) - Observer can watch/listen in the measurement task, and say with 100% cnfidence that either the skill/behavir ccurred (yes) r it did nt (n) - The cunt makes sense. Cunts include: - Percentage increase ver baseline - Percent r number crrect ut f X pprtunities - Rate (number f times skill is bserved per unit f time) Relates t measurement task This list shuld match the pririties that flw directly frm student PLEPs, needs and GOALs Avid mixing expressive and receptive bjectives, r language and artic/intelligibility bjectives Objectives shuld be internally cnsistent with PLEPs, s g back t PLEP t make sure yu have adequate baseline data fr this specific bjective. 8

9 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Required cmpnent f OBJECTIVES 4. Evaluatin prcedures: Key wrds: As measured by What specific instrument, materials r actins will be used t measure student prgress n the bjective(s)? Specific instruments include: - Clinician develped prbes - Daily behavir chart Specific materials include: -Stry wrkbk assignments - End-f-chapter test Specific actins include: -Clinician and staff bservatins in classrm - Clinician using weekly reading timings Relates t measurement task Required cmpnent f OBJECTIVES 5. Sequencing instructinal bjectives: Each IEP GOAL must have at least tw (2) measurable shrt-term bjectives. Shrt-term bjectives must be sequenced in cmplexity t mve the student tward the yearly IEP gal. The chice f hw t sequence bjectives will depend n SLP judgment. Sequence bjectives by BEHAVIOR (the specific student behavir t be learned is the nly part f the bjective that changes). Sequence bjectives by CONDITION (the specific prmpts [level f supprt] given t the student is the nly part f the bjective that changes). Sequence bjectives by CONDITION (the specific place where the behavir is t be perfrmed is the nly part f the bjective that changes). Sequence bjectives by CRITERIA (the specific target end pint (a number r cunt ) determines when the student is ready t mve t the next bjective (r has mastered the bjective). 9

10 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Example: Internal Cnsistency ( Flw ) Nte: Signpsts appear in BOLD print. Evaluatin Summary Reprt (fr initial IEP) r Prgress Reprt (fr annual IEP) The same infrmatin shuld appear in bth the evaluatin summary reprt and IEP PLEP Parent/Teacher interview: The student strengths (as reprted by parent and classrm teacher, and cnfirmed by SLP bservatin) include: he is friendly and likes t interact with peers; he uses wellfrmed sentences; he is increasing his ability t maintain eye cntact with his listeners; he has a gd sense f humr. The main cncern is that the student nly talks abut ne tpic (Shamu the Killer Whale), and that this is causing prblems in the classrm and with peers. Infrmal cmmunicatin tasks and classrm bservatins: This sectin f an evaluatin reprt will include additinal paragraphs with ther evaluatin infrmatin n the student s cmmunicatin perfrmance that paints a picture f student s verall cmmunicatin abilities. This infrmatin and data may cme frm nrm-referenced tests, infrmal evaluatin tasks, criterin-referenced tests, classrm bservatins, cmmunicatin/language samples, etc. Nte carefully: D nt use term needs in this sectin unless yu intend t have a GOAL and PLEP that meets the need. Otherwise, the findings in the reprt may be better described as student cmmunicatin weaknesses. During tw 20-minute semi-structured cnversatins with the examiner, and tw classrm bservatins spanning at least 30 minutes, the student was bserved t spntaneusly initiate nly ne cnversatinal tpic (i.e., Shamu the Killer Whale). The student s preference t initiate cnversatins with adults and peers n nly this tpic was cnfirmed by teacher and parent reprt. This is the student s PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE. The student s preference t talk nly abut ne tpic limits his participatin and prgress in the curriculum; specifically, he des nt verbally engage n tpics brught up by the teacher (as part f the curriculum) r by his peers withut disabilities (which limits his scial interactins). The student s EDUCATIONAL NEED is t initiate at least fur different cnversatinal tpics in at least tw different categries (e.g., schl, such as class wrk, recess, r meals; after schl, such as sprts, mvies, r vide games; family, such as vacatins, pets, r siblings; schl subjects, such as astrnmy r science). 10

11 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 PLEPS The same infrmatin shuld appear in bth the evaluatin summary reprt and IEP PLEP The same infrmatin shuld appear in the PLEP, NEED and GOAL The student STRENGTHS (as reprted by PARENT and classrm teacher, and cnfirmed by SLP bservatin) include: he is friendly and likes t interact with peers; he uses well-frmed sentences; he is increasing his ability t maintain eye cntact with his listeners; he has a gd sense f humr. Anther paragraph (r tw) may be inserted here with ther evaluatin infrmatin n the student s cmmunicatin perfrmance that paints a picture f student s verall cmmunicatin abilities (frm infrmal evaluatin tasks, criterin-referenced tests, classrm bservatins, cmmunicatin/language samples, etc.). Nte carefully: D nt use term needs in this sectin when describing student cmmunicatin weaknesses any need has t have a GOAL. As nted in the students initial evaluatin summary reprt (date), during tw 20-minute semi-structured cnversatins with the examiner, and tw classrm bservatins spanning at least 30 minutes, the student was bserved t spntaneusly initiate nly ne cnversatinal tpic (i.e., Shamu the Killer Whale). The student s preference t initiate cnversatins with adults and peers n nly this tpic was cnfirmed by teacher and parent reprt. This is the student s PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE. Other NEEDS wuld require additinal paragraphs with baseline data; these wuld be additinal PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE statements, and wuld lead t additinal GOALs. Als, if this were an annual IEP, additinal PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE statements dcumenting prgress n last year s gals and bjectives wuld be necessary. The student s preference t talk nly abut ne tpic limits his PARTICIPATION AND PROGRESS IN THE CURRICULUM; specifically, he des nt verbally engage n tpics brught up by the teacher (as part f the curriculum) r by his peers withut disabilities (which limits his scial interactins). 11

12 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 NEEDS The same infrmatin shuld appear in the PLEP, NEED and GOAL Mre specific: The student NEEDS t initiate at least fur different cnversatinal tpics in at least tw different categries (e.g., schl, such as class wrk, recess, r meals; after schl, such as sprts, mvies, r vide games; family, such as vacatins, pets, r siblings; schl subjects, such as astrnmy r science). Less specific: Or The student NEEDS t initiate and respnd t different cnversatinal and classrm tpics acrss different categries such as schl, after schl, family. Other NEEDS wuld require additinal paragraphs with baseline data; these wuld be additinal PRESENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE statements, and wuld lead t additinal GOALs. 12

13 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 This gal cmes frm a criterin-referenced instrument (SCERTS). (JA4.2) Initiates a variety f cnversatinal tpics (Cnversatinal Partner Stage). Criterin: the child initiates at least fur different cnversatinal tpics that span different categries (e.g., schl, such as class wrk, recess, r meals; after schl, such as sprts, mvies, r vide games; family, such as vacatins, pets, r siblings; schl subjects, such as astrnmy r science). GOAL The same infrmatin shuld appear in the PLEP, NEED and GOAL The student will increase the number f cnversatinal tpics that he spntaneusly initiates (with n verbal r ther prmpts) in a student-adult cnversatin frm ne t fur in at least tw different categries (e.g., schl, such as class wrk, recess, r meals; after schl, such as sprts, mvies, r vide games; family, such as vacatins, pets, r siblings; schl subjects, such as astrnmy r science). Objectives (Sequenced by criteria) The same infrmatin shuld appear in the PLEP, NEED, GOAL and OBJECTIVES 1) Given at least tw10-minute cnversatins with an adult during a week and n verbal r ther prmpts, the student will spntaneusly initiate at least tw tpics (ther than Shamu) in at least tw different categries as measured by bservatins by classrm teaching staff by Prgress Reprt #2. 2) Given at least tw10-minute cnversatins with an adult during a week and n verbal r ther prmpts, the student will spntaneusly initiate at least fur tpics (ther than Shamu) in at least tw different categries as measured by bservatins by classrm teaching staff by next annual IEP review. 13

14 Cpyright Minneaplis Public Schls, 2009 Measurement Task Fr: Initial evaluatin (infrmal cmmunicatin evaluatin task, clinician-designed prbe) Prgress reprt (clinician-designed prbe during interventin sessin) Three-year reevaluatin (clinician-designed prbe) 10-minute cnversatin with adult; set timer Adult plans t leave at least 5 pregnant pauses f 5 sec. during 10-minute cnversatin, t allw student pprtunity t initiate a new tpic. SLP keeps track f prmpts necessary t evke tpic initiatins. Adult verbal prmpts: - We re ging t have a cnversatin fr a few minutes, and yu need t decide what tw (fur) things we will talk abut - Tell me mre - What else d yu want t talk abut? - Other verbal prmpts (list): Nnverbal prmpts: - N Shamu card - Expectant facial expressin r hand gesture t tell me mre if student des nt initiate during pause in cnversatin. - Tpic starter reminder cards (e.g., ask a questin; tpic list) if student des nt initiate during pause in cnversatin. - Other nnverbal prmpts (list): Hw will SLP/bserver knw if student initiates tpics ( yes he did r n he didn t)? What will be bserved and cunted? - Student makes a cmment during a 5 sec. pause in cnversatin (I saw Star Wars this weekend) - Student asks a questin during a 5 sec. pause in cnversatin (What did yu d Saturday? Did yu see the Grammys?) - Student respnds t either verbal r ther prmpt. - Sme examples f tpic categries include: schl, such as class wrk, recess, r meals; after schl, such as sprts, mvies, r vide games; family, such as vacatins, pets, r siblings; schl subjects, such as astrnmy r science. Nte: It may be apprpriate during a cnversatin t maintain tpics and nt initiate an arbitrary number f new tpics, s apprpriateness must be taken int accunt when judging student perfrmance n this measurement task. This is an issue fr mst PRAGMATIC gals. In this case, we might extend the length f the cnversatin t prvide additinal pprtunities fr tpic initiatin. 14