ARTICLE IN PRESS. Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44

Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Environmental effects from five historical earthquakes in southern Apennines (Italy) and macroseismic intensity assessment: Contribution to INQUA EEE Scale Project Leonello Serva a, Eliana Esposito b, Luca Guerrieri a,, Sabina Porfido b, Eutizio Vittori a, Valerio Comerci a a APAT, Geological Survey of Italy, Via Brancati 48, 00144 Roma b IAMC CNR, National Research Council, Calata Porto di Massa, Interno Porto, 80133 Napoli, Italy Available online 30 March 2007 Abstract This paper aims at substantiating the basic postulate of the recent Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEE) scale proposed by the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA), that primary and secondary environmental effects of earthquakes provide invaluable information on the earthquake size and intensity field, complementing but also independently testing the results of the traditional damage-based macroseismic scales. The EEE scale is applied to five disastrous earthquakes, which occurred in Southern Italy since the end of the XVII century. For each considered earthquake, the available macroseismic data have been reviewed and integrated through an updated interpretation of the original texts. The cataloguing and analysis of the seismically induced environmental effects has provided (a) a more detailed picture of the macroseismic fields, (b) the chance to test the scaling of the EEE scale with the MCS and MSK macroseismic scales, confirming its good fit with the MSK/MM, (c) I 0 estimates based on EEE scale in good agreement with I 0 assessments derived from MCS/MSK scales, (d) further constrains for the new version of the EEE scale, (e) useful data for seismic zonation. These results have confirmed once more the essential role of EEEs in the process of seismic hazard assessment and risk reduction. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction The macroseismic intensity scales developed since the last decades of the XIX century were based on the effects on (a) humans, (b) built environment and (c) natural environment (de Rossi, 1883; Mercalli, 1902; Wood and Neumann, 1931; Sieberg, 1943; Richter, 1958). The presence in the scale of environmental effects was due to the many references principally to ground cracks and landslides, but also surface faulting, liquefaction, soil compaction, hydrological changes, anomalous sea waves, in the historical sources. These effects were included in the first scales, although little detail was provided about their characteristics. Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 650074781. E-mail address: luca.guerrieri@apat.it (L. Guerrieri). Subsequently, these effects have been disregarded by the seismologists and historians dealing with intensity estimates, probably due to their inner complexity and variability requiring specific skills and knowledge. The appliers of the scales have focused more and more on the easier to analyse human and built environment (Grunthal, 1998). Recent studies (Dengler and McPherson, 1993; Serva, 1994, Esposito et al., 1997; Michetti et al., 2004 and references therein) have offered new evidence that coseismic environmental effects provide precious information on the earthquake size and its intensity field, complementing, de facto, the traditional damage-based macroseismic scales. Only the ground effects allow comparison of recent, historic and palaeo-seismic events. This is the basic postulate of the new Earthquake Environmental Effects (EEE) intensity scale developed in the framework of the activities of the International Union for Quaternary 1040-6182/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.03.015

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 31 Research (INQUA) Subcommission on Paleoseismicity (http://www.apat.gov.it/site/engb/projects/inqua_scale/ default.html). To build this scale, a comprehensive base of macroseismic intensity and environmental coseismic effects data is required. So far, a significant number of earthquakes worldwide has provided the necessary information to develop the first operational version of the EEE scale, presented at the XVI INQUA Congress Reno in 2003, at the 32nd International Geological Congress Florence in 2004 and at other conferences (Michetti et al., 2003, 2004; Esposito et al., 2004; Porfido et al., 2004; Serva et al., 2004) and discussed in other conferences (Guerrieri et al., 2005a, b, 2006; Michetti, 2005, 2006; Porfido and Esposito, 2005; Vittori et al., 2005). The EEE scale has the scope to make the most of the wealth of information contained in the natural environment to better evaluate the intensity of earthquakes. The resulting intensity data are therefore the best tool to compare recent, historic and prehistoric earthquakes. The EEE scale is not a self-sufficient instrument, being conceived to complement the already established macroseismic scales. When suitable effects on natural environment are documented, the EEE scale allows independent estimates of epicentral and local intensity. Through a straightforward procedure, these values can be used for intensity assessment alone or together with damage-based traditional scales. The use of the EEE intensity scale as an independent tool is recommended when only environmental effects are diagnostic because effects on humans and on built environment are absent or too scarce (i.e. in sparsely populated or desert areas) or are saturated (i.e. X XII intensity degrees). Above the VII intensity degree, when environmental effects usually become diagnostic, the EEE intensity used alone can define the intensity degree with an acceptable level of accuracy as shown by the processing of many earthquakes worldwide. This accuracy improves with the intensity degree, in particular in the range of occurrence of primary effects, typically from the VIII degree above. Obviously, when environmental effects are not available, intensity has to be assessed by damage-based traditional scales. If effects are available either on built environment and natural environments, allowing estimation of two independent intensities, the intensity has to coincide with the highest value between these two estimates. The choice of the highest intensity value comes from the practise in macroseismic intensity assessment of representing, in a conservative way, the most severe effects of earthquakes and not their average effects. This paper represents a contribution of the Italian working group aiming at testing the present version of the EEE scale through its application to selected Italian earthquakes. Similarly, this version is under testing by many regional working groups, in order to set up, within 2007, an improved version of the EEE scale (Chunga et al., 2005; Esposito et al., 2005a, b; Fokaefs et al., 2005; Papathanassiou and Pavlides, 2005; Salomon 2005; Tatevossian, 2005; Zamudio Diaz et al., 2005; Azuma and Ota, 2006; Papanikolaou et al. 2006; Lalinde and Sanchez, 2007). In Italy, a unique database of macroseismic historic information is available, spanning more than two millennia (Postpischl, 1985a; Guidoboni, 1994; Boschi et al., 1995, 1997). Up to the XV XVI centuries, the written records are commonly too sparse to reliably construct the macroseismic field. Only the epicentre location, epicentral intensity (I 0 ) and isolated local intensities can be assessed. Since the end of XVII century, numerous detailed contemporary reports have allowed reliable portraits of the macroseismic fields of the major shocks, based on the local intensity estimates from hundreds of localities widespread in the territory. To give an idea, the intensity field of the last strong earthquake in southern Italy, the 1980 Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake (I 0 X MSK, Ms 6.9), includes ca. 1400 individual assessments (Postpischl et al., 1985), and the intensity field of the comparable 1694 Irpinia- Basilicata earthquake that hit the same area includes over 250 localities. Very often, the contemporary documents also include descriptions of environmental coseismic phenomena effects associated with the earthquake, becoming more and more scientifically accurate with time. In this study, this wealth of knowledge is reviewed for a set of chosen events, to scrutiny the practical applicability of the EEE scale in order to: (a) reassess the historical events in the same region, by comparing EEE and damage-based intensities, and (b) contribute to reduce the future risk from environmental effects, through a more precise estimate of their type, size and distribution in the earthquake-prone areas. 2. Seismotectonic framework of the study area The Southern Apennine is a Cenozoic-Quaternary northeast-verging fold-and thrust belt made of complex successions of carbonate and clastic deposits. The chainforedeep system was active up to ca. the Middle Pleistocene (0.65 Ma) driven by the flexural retreat of the Adriatic slab. Since then, extension has dominated (e.g., Doglioni et al., 1996; Scandone and Stucchi, 2000) together with volcanic activity along the Campanian coast (Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei, Ischia). Apart from the modest seismicity related to the volcanism, nearly all the seismic activity (Fig. 1) is concentrated along a narrow belt, more or less corresponding to the axis of the Apennines chain. The major historic shocks have reached magnitudes around 7, possibly slightly higher in a few instances. Commonly, seismic sequences are observed, with main shocks (one or more with comparable magnitudes) often followed by long periods of aftershocks. Hypocentral depths usually range from 5 to 20 km.

32 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Fig. 1. Above: Historical earthquakes (Mso5.0) in Southern Apennines (Ref. CPTI, 2004). Below: Location of end-to-end surface ruptures and macroseismic epicentres of the earthquakes considered in this study. In the Southern Apennines, the macroseismic intensity has reached the XI degree in three cases (1688, 1694, 1857), X degree in 10 cases (1349, 1456, 1561, 1702, 1732, 1805, 1851, 1910, 1930, 1980), commonly assessed by means of the Mercalli Cancani Sieberg (MCS) scale, applied for the analysis of historic earthquakes (Postpischl, 1985a, b). For

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 33 Table 1 Seismological parameters of the five earthquakes considered in this study (Postpischl, 1985a; CPTI, 2004) Date (D.M.Y) the 1980 Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake, the Medvedev Sponheur Karnik (MSK) scale has been adopted, which takes into account modern building techniques. The seismological parameters of the five earthquakes under investigation (epicentres in Fig. 1) are reported in Table 1. 3. Methodology Region Epicenter I 0 (MCS) Magnitude Latitude Longitude 05.06.1688 Sannio 41.28 14.57 XI 6.7 Mm 05.09.1694 Irpinia- 40.88 15.35 X XI 6.9 Mm Basilicata 26.07.1805 Molise 41.50 14.47 X 6.6 Mm 23.07.1930 Irpinia 41.05 15.37 X 6.7 Ms 23.11.1980 Irpinia- Basilicata 40.85 15.28 X 6.9 Ms For each considered earthquake, the original descriptions have been reviewed in order to highlight effects on natural environment. This process has detected and localised coseismic environmental effects, and classifies them into six main types: surface faulting (SF), slope movements (SM), ground cracks (GC), ground settlements (GS), hydrological anomalies (HA) and anomalous seasurface waves (Tsunami, TS). The quantitative and qualitative information on environmental effects has been collected in a database. Concerning primary effects, for the 1694, 1805 and 1930 earthquakes, the length of the macroseismic surface faulting associated to each earthquake has been measured. This estimation has been based on the interpretations of the descriptions reporting very long and linearly extended ground ruptures, placed on active faults and therefore interpretable as local evidence of surface faulting (Michetti et al., 2000a, b) and according to the methodology proposed by Shebalin (1972), Branno et al. (1986 and bibliography therein), and Esposito et al. (1992). To this end, each tectonic segment that ruptured the ground surface has been mapped, taking into account its coseismic displacement, when known. The length of the macroseismic surface faulting was estimated after joining the precise locations of fault ruptures or, with less accuracy, the centroid of the locality cited in the original source, corresponding to the end-to-end distance between the farthest locality points where fault ruptures were reported. For the 1688 and 1805 earthquakes, the location of surface faulting was based on the seismogenic fault identified on the basis of a detailed field survey (Guerrieri et al., 2000; Nappi et al., 2006, 2007a, b) and in agreement with the corresponding macroseismic fields (Serva, 1985a; Esposito et al., 1987). For the 1980 case, the fault trace was surveyed by numerous geologists and reported in scientific papers (Bollettinari and Panizza, 1981; Cinque et al., 1981; Westway and Jacksons, 1984; Pantosti and Valensise, 1993; Blumetti et al., 2002). In this way it is possible to estimate an epicentral intensity (I 0 ) from total rupture length and maximum displacement, where available (1980 earthquake in this study) according to the EEE intensity scale. Furthermore, on the basis of secondary effects that occurred in a specific area (in this case, at the scale of the municipality), an EEE local intensity has been assessed. The total distribution of local intensities has allowed depiction of the EEE macroseismic field and derivation of an independent I 0 value from the total area distribution of secondary effects (slope movements in these case studies). 4. EEE intensity evaluation: results EEE intensity estimates of the five aforesaid earthquakes are reported, based on the characteristics and distribution of environmental effects retrieved from the review of historical documents. For each earthquake, the localities affected by EEEs are listed, with indicated type of effect, distance from the epicentre and local intensities, according to the MCS or MSK scales and the EEE scale. A map shows the EEE local intensity distribution and the macroseismic surface faulting. For the 1980 Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake, the coseismic surface ruptures surveyed after the event are reported as well. These data have been also used for the I 0 assessment according to the EEE scale. 4.1. 5 June 1688, Sannio earthquake (Fig. 2) This earthquake hit the area southwest of the Matese massif, causing the total destruction of Cerreto Sannita and Civitella Licinia (Benevento district) with IXX MCS (Fig. 2). Heavy damage was reported in 130 localities in the districts of Benevento, Avellino and Caserta. About 10,000 casualties have been estimated (Serva, 1985a; Boschi et al., 1995). The isoseismals reconstructed by Serva (1985a, b) show a strong elongation parallel to the axis of the affected sector of the Apenninic chain. Based on Nappi et al. (2006, 2007a, b) it was possible to estimate the end-to-end length of coseismic rupture zone (about 32 km). EEE local intensities ranging between V and VIII have been assessed for 14 municipalities on the basis of secondary effects (42% slope movements, 29% ground cracks, 29% hydrological anomalies) occurred inside their territory. The parameter I 0 on the basis of the EEE scale is X, one degree lower than the corresponding MCS. 4.2. 5 September 1694, Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake (Fig. 3) This shock affected a wide area between Campania and Basilicata, producing serious damage in 120 municipalities distributed among the Irpinia and Salerno districts, Basilicata and northern Puglia regions (Fig. 3). More than

34 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Fig. 2. 05.06.1688 Sannio earthquake: EEE intensity distribution.14 localities have been affected by slope movements (42%), ground cracks (29%), hydrological anomalies (29%). The farthest effect are located 190 km from the epicentre (Pomarico). After Serva (1985a, b), Boschi et al. (1995, 1997), Esposito et al. (1998) and bibliography therein. The location of surface faulting is based on Nappi et al. (2006, 2007a, b), in agreement with the macroseismic field from Serva (1985a, b) and the induced environmental effects distribution. 6000 people died. Over 30 municipalities were razed to the ground almost completely (IXX MCS), including Bisaccia, Sant Angelo dei Lombardi, Calitri, Bella and Muro Lucano. The seismic sequence was characterized by a main shock, followed immediately after by a second quake and then by a suite of strong aftershocks, which lasted until the first days of January 1695 (Serva, 1985b; Boschi et al., 1995). The MCS intensity field displays an Apenninic elongation, with an amplification in the VIII degree toward Salerno.

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 35 Fig. 3. 05.09.1694 Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake: EEE intensities from Earthquake Environmental Effects (secondary effects: 11 slope movements, 2 hydrological anomalies, 1 tsunami). After Serva (1985a, b), Boschi et al. (1995), Boschi et al. (1997), Esposito et al. (1998) and bibliography therein. The revision of contemporary sources showed primary effects distributed along the line between Teora and Tito. Hence, the length of macroseismic surface faulting is not less than 38 km. The EEE macroseismic field from secondary effects (mostly slope movements) is composed by 12 local intensities between IV and X. Even in this case the epicentral intensity based on the EEE scale (I 0 ¼ X) is slightly lower than the corresponding MCS (I 0 ¼ X XI). 4.3. 26 July 1805, Molise earthquake (Fig. 4) This seismic event had its epicentre at Frosolone (Isernia district) with I ¼ XI MCS, and affected mostly the Molise region, where at least 30 municipalities, located in the Bojano plain and the eastern foot of the Matese massif, were nearly totally destroyed (Fig. 4). About one third of the buildings collapsed in Isernia and also Campobasso was heavily damaged (Esposito et al., 1995), as well as many

36 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Fig. 4. 26.07.1805 Molise earthquake: EEE intensities from Earthquake Environmental Effects (34% hydrological anomalies, 26% ground cracks; 21% slope movements; 10% tsunami, 7% surface faulting; 2% liquefaction) After Esposito et al. (1987, 1998), Guerrieri et al. (2000), Porfido et al. (2002). other centres in the Benevento and Caserta districts. The number of casualties reported in the historic sources varies from 4000 to 6000 (Esposito et al., 1987; Boschi et al., 1995). Here, the X and IX degree isoseismals are elongated in the Apenninic direction, with an amplification lobe of the VIII degree toward the Taburno-Camposauro mountains. A vast VII degree area included the southern Latium and Abruzzo regions and, southward, the Avellino and Salerno districts in the Campania region (Esposito et al., 1987). A great number of effects on the natural environment (hydrological anomalies and ground cracks above all) has allowed assessment of an EEE intensity value (from V to X) for 50 municipalities located in the far field area. Based on the review of historical documents, and in agreement with geological investigations along the Bojano fault system (Guerrieri et al., 2000; Michetti et al., 2000a, b; Esposito et al., 2001; Porfido et al., 2002), it was possible to measure the rupture length (40 km) and the maximum displacement (150 cm). Using the EEE scale, surface faulting parameters and the total areal distribution of landslides indicate I 0 ¼ X in agreement with the equivalent MCS assessment.

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 37 Fig. 4. (Continued) 4.4. 23 July 1930, Irpinia earthquake (Fig. 5) This affected a region from the Bay of Naples and the Volturno River plain to the Bari Murge (Fig. 5). The most seriously hit area had an elliptical shape, NW SE-trending over 6000 km 2. The most damaged localities (IX X degree MCS) lie along its long axis: Ariano Irpino, Lacedonia, Villanova del Battista, Scampitella, Trevico, and Aquilonia. The shock was even felt in Veneto and Lombardy to the north and Puglia and Calabria to the south. According to the official sources, the death toll was 1404, nearly all in the Avellino district; 4624 people were wounded, and about 100,000 lost their homes (Spadea et al., 1985; Esposito et al., 2000; Porfido et al., 2002). Effects on natural environment are largely reported in the contemporary documents (photograph in Fig. 5) including geological reports (Oddone, 1932). Secondary effects, mainly hydrological anomalies and slope movements (Esposito et al., 2000, 2001; Porfido et al., 2002), have supported the evaluation of EEE local intensity values (from IV to X) in more than 60 municipalities. The macroseismic surface faulting can be estimated in the order of 38 km in length and 40 cm in maximum displacement. According to these data, EEE and MCS epicentral intensity values are coincident (I 0 ¼ X). 4.5. 23 November 1980, Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake (Fig. 6) This event was the strongest one of the last 30 years in the Southern Apennines (Fig. 6). It was felt nearly everywhere in Italy, from Sicily to Emilia Romagna and Liguria. About 800 localities suffered serious damage, mainly in Campania and Basilicata; 75,000 houses were totally destroyed and 275,000 badly damaged. Casualties were ca. 3000, and 10,000 people were wounded (Postpischl et al., 1985). Fifteen municipalities in the Avellino, Salerno and Potenza districts collapsed nearly completely (Intensity IX and X MSK); among them Castelnuovo di Conza, Conza della Campania, Lioni, Santomenna and Sant Angelo dei Lombardi. The seismic event was characterized by a complex main rupture, composed of three major sub-events: Mw 6.5, 6.4 and 6.3 at 0, 20 and 40 s, respectively, interpreted as a succession of normal faulting slips on planes with variable inclination (Westaway and Jackson, 1984; Bernard and Zollo, 1989;

38 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Fig. 5. 23.07.1930 Irpinia earthquake. Above. EEE intensities from Earthquake Environmental Effects (50% hydrological anomalies; 30% slope movements; 14% ground cracks; 4% surface faulting; 2% liquefactions). Below. Left: EEE intensities in the epicentral area. After Oddone (1932), Spadea et al. (1985), Esposito et al. (2000, 2001), Castenetto and Sebastiano (2002) and bibliography therein. Right: coseismic fracture in the field, Lacedonia, Avellino (Courtesy of Image service, Lacedonia).

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 39 Fig. 5. (Continued) Bernard et al., 1993; Pantosti and Valensise 1993; Blumetti et al., 2002). The isoseismal elongation is parallel to the Apenninic chain and the known coseismic fault ruptures. A strong attenuation is clear toward the Cilento peninsula and the Vesuvius (Postpischl et al., 1985; Branno et al., 1986). Numerous geological surveys of the area affected by this earthquake have provided a large amount of information on secondary effects, like slope movements and ground cracks (Esposito et al., 1998, 2001; Porfido et al., 2002). From these data it was possible to assess EEE local intensities values to 66 municipalities ranging from III to X. The amount of surface faulting (rupture length ¼ 40 km; maximum displacement ¼ 100 cm, Pantosti and Valensise, 1993) and the total area distribution of slope movements (7400 km 2 ) indicate I 0 ¼ X, in good agreement with I 0 resulting from MSK scale. 5. Discussion The review of the effects on the natural environment triggered by five earthquakes occurred in the Southern Apennines through the last 4 centuries has allowed estimation of epicentral and local intensity values independently from the damage effects on the built environment. The EEE epicentral intensity (I 0 ) estimates are based

40 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 Fig. 6. 23.11.1980 Irpinia-Basilicata earthquake. Above. EEE intensities from Earthquake Environmental Effects (45% slope movements; 23% ground cracks; 15% surface faulting; 12% liquefactions; 5% hydrological anomalies). Below. Left: the distribution of coseismic surface faulting (after Bollettinari and Panizza, 1981; Cinque et al.,1981; Westway and Jacksons, 1984; Pantosti and Valensise, 1993; Esposito et al., 1998; Blumetti et al., 2002; Porfido et al., 2002). Right: a fault segment reactivated during the 1980 earthquake at Costa Monticello, near Bella.

L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 41 Fig. 6. (Continued) essentially on primary effects and in particular on the length of surface faulting, as the maximum offset is generally not available. The actual surface rupture length is not readily provided by historical information. At best, only its most prominent part is reported. However, the total rupture can be inferred, based on the distribution of ground ruptures interpretable as coseismic faulting and the characteristics of the macroseismic field. This method is applicable when calibration is possible through the comparison of historical and recent earthquakes, as is the case in Southern Apennines. The five earthquakes analysed here share the same epicentral intensity (X) in good agreement with the corresponding MCS values (X to X XI). Similarly, the total area distributions of secondary effects have provided I 0 values consistent with these estimates. The comparison between EEE and MCS local intensities has shown a remarkable difference only for the 1688 event, where maximum EEE local intensities are two degrees lower than the corresponding MCS ones. This discrepancy is likely due to the insufficiency of the historical sources, thus suggesting a quality threshold for the applicability of the EEE scale. Concerning the other three events classified with MCS intensity scale (1694, 1805, 1930 events), the maximum local intensities evaluated by means of the EEE scale

42 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Serva et al. / Quaternary International 173 174 (2007) 30 44 coincide with or are one degree lower than the maximum MCS intensities in the same localities. Only slight differences do exist with the MSK values, only available for the 1980 event, likely reflecting very local situations, worth being investigated individually, where possible. Therefore, the distribution of local intensities based on secondary effects (especially ground cracks, slope failures, hydrological anomalies and ground settlements) are in good agreement with the MCS macroseismic fields. Hence, the effects on buildings, secondary effects on natural environment may provide insight on the hazard from seismic shaking even in the far field. A possible example is given by the village of Pomarico, where in 1688, although no structural damage occurred the account of coseismic landsliding points to a non-trivial local hazard. This is not a surprising result, taking into account that the EEE scale has been derived largely from the macroseismic scales, the MM and MSK scales in particular, which are basically equivalent (Reiter, 1990; Panza, 2004), and aims at complementing them. Instead, the MCS estimates are often at least one degree higher than the EEE ones, depicting an analogous difference between MSK and MCS. It should be remembered that the intensity of all Italian historic earthquakes has been estimated by the latter scale (Postpischl, 1985a, b), making compulsory the correct scaling of MCS over MSK to allow a reliable comparison of Italian historic and recent events. This is a complex task, due to the common lack in the historic events of the statistical inventory of damage required by the MSK. Indeed, the EEE intensities might prove useful to refine such scaling. affecting/damaging the human environment; hence, the ones occurred in remote areas and of minor size and extent. The main result of the application of the EEE scale to the case studies described here is that, even without adequate information on the damages induced by these shocks, their primary effects would have been sufficient to estimate I 0. Furthermore, it is evident that the secondary effects on the natural environment play a role analogous to that of damage to buildings for intensity assessment. Their areal distribution, density and size can be very informative for estimating local intensity and location of epicentre. Moreover, although no independent assessments of I 0 can be obtained from them due to their intrinsic variability, I 0 estimates have resulted in good agreement for the five case studies illustrated here. Comparing these case studies with those from other tectonically active areas, such as plate boundaries, it is evident that in the Southern Apennines the independent intensities obtained from effects on built and natural environments are in better agreement. In fact, Southern Apennine earthquakes, though strongly destructive, are characterized by intensity values rarely higher than the saturation threshold for buildings (i.e. intensity degrees are alwaysoxi XII). Due to this reason and because of a widely distributed built environment since the Middle Ages, the Southern Apennines are particularly suitable for the calibration of the EEE scale with the traditional macroseismic scales. In this frame, the consolidation of the relationships between the characteristics of the environmental effects and the corresponding EEE intensity degrees represents one of the main results of this study. 6. Conclusions The EEE scale aims at contributing to intensity assessment by taking advantage of the effects on the natural environment. It is not an independent tool for intensity assessment, although it can provide independent estimates, but it is conceived to integrate and improve the intensity evaluations based on the classical macroseismic scales. One of the goals of this study has been to compare the quality of EEE estimates for modern and historic events and to learn, if viable, how to read past events with the key provided by a well-studied recent event occurred in the same setting and of similar size. To this end, the ground effects of five strong earthquakes, with comparable magnitude and intensity, occurring in a relatively homogeneous setting within the Southern Apennines since the end of the XVII century, have been analysed and reinterpreted. Among these earthquakes, the knowledge associated to the latest event (1980 Irpinia-Basilicata) is of high scientific quality and detail. For the other ones, it is mostly based on historic and technical reports, sometimes very detailed as well, but less precise with regard to environmental effects, especially the ones not directly Acknowledgements The Authors are grateful to Yoko Ota and Gerald Roberts for their constructive comments, which have greatly improved the manuscript. 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