Experimental Particle Physics PHYS6011 Southampton University Lecture 1
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1 Experimental Particle Physics PHYS6011 Southampton University Lecture 1 Fergus Wilson, Fergus.Wilson at stfc.ac.uk 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 1
2 Administrative Points 5 lectures: Tuesday 10am: 6th May (59/1257) Thursday 11am: 1st and 8 th May (59/1257) Friday 11am: 2 nd and 9 th May (54/7033 (7C)) Course Objectives, Lecture Notes, Problem examples: Resources: K. Wille, The Physics of Particle Accelerators D. Green, The Physics of Particle Detectors K.Kleinknecht, Detectors for Particle Radiation I.R. Kenyon, Elementary Particle Physics (chap 3). Martin and Shaw, Particle Physics Particle Data Group, 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 2/39
3 Syllabus 5 lectures 1. Part 1 Building a Particle Physics Experiment 1. Accelerators and Sources 2. Interactions with Matter 3. Detectors 2. Part 2 Putting it all together 1. Searching for the Higgs Part 1 2. Finding the Higgs and searching for Supersymmetry Part 2 (or what can you get for $10,000,000,000?) 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 3/39
4 Natural Units Natural Units: Energy - GeV Mass GeV/c 2 Momentum GeV/c Length and time GeV -1 Use the units that are easiest. 1 ev = x J Boltzmann Constant = x 10-5 ev/kelvin h c 1 E 2 E p 2 2 c 2 p 2 2 m c m 2 4 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 4/39
5 LHC 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 5/39
6 Universe energy Time, energy (temperature) and distance are related: High momentum : small distance : short wavelength ; high temperature : early Universe T K t 12 2/3 11 univ( ) t<10 secs T K t 10 1/2 11 univ( ) 210 t>10 secs Boltzmann constant, k ev K 5-1 Energy Age (secs) Temp. (K) Observable Size 1 ev Light Years 1 MeV km 10 TeV mm 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 6/39
7 Natural Radioactivity First discovered in late 1800s (X-rays Becquerel 1896) Used as particle source in many significant experiments Rutherford s 1906 experiment: elastic scattering α+n α+n Rutherford s 1917 experiment: inelastic scattering α+n p+x Common radioisotopes include 55 Fe: 6 kev γ, τ 1/2 = 2.7 years (discovered?) 90 Sr: 500 kev β, τ 1/2 = 28.9 years (1790) 241 Am: 5.5 MeV α, τ 1/2 = 432 years (1944) 210 Po: 5.41 MeV α, τ 1/2 = 137 days (1898) Radioactivity of food Bananas : 3500 pci/kg Beer: 400 pci/kg Easy to control, predictable flux but low energy Still used for calibrations and tests Cassini probe: Plutonium 238 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 7/39
8 Cosmic Rays History 1912: First discovered (Hess) 1927: First seen in cloud chambers 1962: First ev cosmic ray seen Low energy cosmic rays from Sun Solar wind (mainly protons) Neutrinos High energy particles from sun, galaxy and perhaps beyond Primary: Astronomical sources. Secondary: Created in atmosphere. Neutrinos pass through atmosphere and earth Low energy charged particles trapped in Van Allen Belt High energy particles interact in atmosphere. Flux at ground level mainly muons: s -1 m -2 Highest energy ever seen ~10 20 ev 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 8/39
9 Cosmic Rays nucleons I E E E cm s sr GeV 2.7 N ( ) TeV 2 Galactic Sources Intergalactic Sources? GZK cutoff ev. Should be impossible to get energies above this due to interaction with CMB unless produced nearby => Black Holes? LHC 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 9/39
10 Cosmic Ray Experiments 6cm Primary source for particle physics experiments for decades Detectors taken to altitude for larger flux/higher energy Positron (1932) and many other particles first observed Modern experiments include: Particle astrophysics Space, atmosphere, surface, underground Neutrino Solar, atmospheric Dark Matter searches Still useful for calibration and testing Which direction is the e + moving (up or down)? Is the B-field in or out of the page? 1912 CTR Wilson Cloud Chamber 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 10/39
11 Cosmic Rays - Pierre Auger Project Surface Array 1600 detector stations 1.5 km spacing 3000 km 2 60 km Fluorescence Detectors 4 Telescope enclosures 6 Telescopes per enclosure 24 Telescopes total 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 11/39
12 Active Galactic Nuclei and cosmic rays Highest energy cosmic rays seem to be associated with Active galactic nuclei but are they? E>5.7x10 19 GeV 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 12/39
13 Dark Energy and Dark Matter Most of the Universe is invisible. Dark Energy: Exerts a negative pressure on the Universe Increases the acceleration of the galaxies. Dark Matter: Just like ordinary matter but not visible (does not give off light). 1: Baryonic Dark Matter ~2% of the Universe MACHOS, dwarf stars, etc 2: Non-Baryonic Dark Matter ~20% of the Universe Hot (neutrinos) and Cold (WIMPS, axions, neutralinos). Expected to be mostly Cold Rotation Velocity vr ( ) Outside Galaxy vr ( ) M() r r 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 13/39 1 r Observed Predicted
14 Dark Matter DAMA/LIBRA 1. As the earth goes round the sun, its velocity relative to the galaxy changes by +/-30 km 2. Look for nuclear recoil in NaI as nucleus interacts with dark matter particle. 3. Expect to see a change in the rate of interactions every six months. 4. But is there really a pattern? and is it really dark matter? 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 14/39
15 Neutrinos Nuclear Reactors and the Sun Reactors Nuclear Fission Sun Nuclear Fusion But still weak interactions. Well understood. Huge fluxes of MeV neutrons and electron neutrinos. But low energy. First direct neutrino observation in Neutrino density at Earth ~ 510 cm s Mean free path d : d u d water kg m kg/m 18 light years st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 15/39
16 Neutrino Oscillation Neutrinos Oscillate : sin (2 )sin m L GeV 2 P E ev km m m (8.0 ) 10 ev solar solar (33.9 ) m m (2.4 ) 10 ev 3 U P ( t) i i i1 neutrino with definite flavour (e,μ,τ) i neutrino with definite mass (1,2,3) U i PMNS mixing matrix atm 0.5 (45 7) atm ~ (8 1) m o o ev o 2 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 16/39 Can change from one type to another. Implies ν have mass. Oscillation experiments can only measure difference in squared mass Δm 2 L/E (km/gev)
17 fraction υ remaining Daya Bay (Oct 23 rd 2012) 3 sets of detectors surrounded by 6 civilian nuclear reactors Look for number of electron anti-neutrinos surviving P 1 sin 2 sin (1.267 m L / E) e e Result: 2 sin (2 13) ( stat) 0.005( syst) Implies value > 0 RENO (South Korea) has also reported results (3-Apr-2012) 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 17/39
18 Some Neutrino Detectors Present and Future T2K hepwww.rl.ac.uk/public/groups/t2k/t2k.html Super-Kamiokande Antares Ice Cube KM3NeT 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 18/39
19 Particle Sources Want intense monochromatic beams on demand: 1. Make some particles Electrons: metal + few ev of thermal energy Protons/nuclei: completely ionise gas 2. Accelerate them in the lab -ve +ve e - K.E. = e V V 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 19/39
20 Creating Electrons Triode Gun Current: 1 A Voltage: 10 kv The grid is held at 50V below cathode (so no electrons escape). When triggered, grid voltage reduced to 0V. Electrons flow through grid. Pulse length: ~1ns 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 20/39
21 Creating Positrons Example of how it will be done at the ILC (2027?) High energy e- emit photons in undulator. Photons hit target (tungsten) Positrons and electrons emitted by pair-production. Electrons removed, positrons accelerated. Inefficient: 1 positron for every 10 5 high energy electrons. Example of how it is done at SLAC (2005) 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 21/39
22 Creating Protons PIG (Penning Ion Gauge) Hydrogen gas bottle Tevatron Ion source (e.g. H 2 ) introduced as a gas and ionised. Magnetic field 0.01T perpendicular to E-field causes ions to spiral along B-field lines. Low pressure needed to keep mean-free path long (10-3 Torr). Modern methods are more complicated. 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 22/39
23 Anti-Proton Production at CERN Protons are accelerated in a linear accelerator, booster, and proton synchroton (PS) up to 27 GeV. These protons hit a heavy target (Beryllium). In the interaction of the protons and the target nuclei many particle-antiparticle pairs are created out of the energy, in some cases proton-antiproton pairs. Some of the antiprotons are caught in the antiproton cooler (AC) and stored in the antiproton accumulator (AA). From there they are transferred to the low energy antiproton ring (LEAR) where experiments take place. 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 23/39
24 DC Accelerators Cockcroft Walton How it works Cockcroft and Walton s Original Design (~1932) Fermilab s 750kV Cockroft-Walton DC accelerators quickly become impractical Air breaks down at ~1 MV/m 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 24/39
25 DC Accelerators Van der Graff Van de Graaf at MIT (25 MV) 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 25/39
26 Cyclotrons Berkeley (1929) Utilise motion in magnetic field: p (GeV/c) = 0.3 q B R Apply AC to two halves Lawrence achieved MeV particles with 28cm diameter Magnet size scales with momentum Orsay (2000) qb m Proton Therapy PSI Still used for Medical Therapy Creating Radioisotopes Nuclear Science 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 26/39
27 Cyclotrons - Variations Cyclotron limitations: Energy limit is quite low: 25 MeV per charge Non-relativistic velocity v < 0.15c Alternatives: Syncro-cyclotron Keep magnetic field constant but decrease RF frequency as energy increases to compensate for relativistic effects. Iso-cyclotron Keep RF frequency the same but increase the radial magnetic field so that cyclotron frequency remains the same: Can reach ~600 MeV qb( r( E)) const. me ( ) Synchrotron For very high energies. See later 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 27/39
28 Linear Accelerators For energies greater than few MeV: Use multiple stages RF easier to generate and handle Bunches travel through resonant cavities Spacing and/or frequency changes with velocity Can achieve 10MV/m and higher 3km long Stanford Linac reached 45 GeV 30km Linear Collider would reach 250 GeV. 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 28/39
29 Superconducting Cavities & Klystron Early Warning Radar SLAC Klystron Hall 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 29/39
30 Synchrotrons p (GeV/c) = 0.3 q B R Cyclotron has constant B, increasing R Increase B keeping R constant: variable current electromagnets particles can travel in small diameter vacuum pipe single cavity can accelerate particles each turn efficient use of space and equipment Discrete components in ring 2 mv Bqv cavities dipoles (bending) v Bq quadrupoles (focusing) r m sextuples (achromaticity) diagnostics Bq m0 f control 2m m T 0 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 30/39
31 Synchrotron Radiation Accelerated charges radiate Average power loss per particle: Quantum process spread in energy For a given energy ~ 1/mass 4 (this comes from γ in the power loss equation) Electron losses much larger than proton High energy electron machines have very large or infinite R (i.e. linear). Pulsed, intense X-ray source may be useful for some things... Power loss (Watts) e a 4 v E a 3 6 c R m E Electron Power Loss per turn MeV/turn R E in GeV, R in km E Proton Power Loss per turn kev/turn R E in TeV, R in km. o 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 31/39
32 Real Synchrotrons Grenoble, France Bevatron, LBNL, USA (1954) DIAMOND, RAL, UK 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 32/39
33 Fixed Target Experiments Beam incident on stationary target Interaction products have large momentum in forward direction Large wasted energy small s Intense beams/large target high rate Secondary beams can be made. p ( E, p ) p ( E, p ) E p m Centre of Mass energy squared s E ( p p ) Ecm E E p p /2 2 2 cm 1 2 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 33/39
34 Fixed Target - Neutrino Beams 700 m 700 km Fermilab sends a ν μ beam to Minnesota Looking for oscillations Detector at bottom of mine shaft 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 34/39
35 Colliders Incoming momenta cancel s = 2E beam Same magnetic field deflects opposite charges in opposite directions Antiparticle accelerator for free! particle/antiparticle quantum numbers also cancel Technically challenging Event Rate R L Current I n efn i i b Luminosity f frequency particles per bunch n n I I x y fnbe f x y bunch size #bunches 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 35/39
36 Different Colliders p anti-p p p μ+ μ- energy frontier difficult to interpret limited by anti-p production SPS, Tevatron high luminosity energy frontier LHC some plans exist e + e - e p ion ion relatively easy analysis high energies difficult LEP, PEP, ILC... proton structure HERA quark gluon plasma RHIC, LHC Neutrino Collider!!! 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 36/39
37 Complexes Synchrotrons can t accelerate particles from rest Designed for specific energy range, normally about factor of 10 Accelerators are linked into complexes 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 37/39
38 Collider Parameters Full details at 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 38/39
39 Some notable accelerators Type Name Size Start Place Energy Year Cockcroft- 3m 1932 Cambridge 0.7MeV Walton Cyclotron Brookhaven 1.0 MeV Cyclotron Brookhaven 100 MeV Synchrotron Cosmotron 72m 1953 Brookhaven 3.3 GeV Synchrotron AGS 72m 1960 Brookhaven 33 GeV Collider LEP 27km 1995 CERN 104 GeV Collider LHC 27km 2010 CERN 3.5 TeV Collider LHC 27km 2014 CERN 7.5 TeV 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 39/39
40 Summary of Lecture I Admin Particle Sources Natural Radiation Cosmic Rays Reactors Accelerators Accelerators Cockcroft Walton Van der Graaf Cyclotron Synchrotron Linear Accelerator Antiparticle Production Collider Parameters 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 40/39
41 Next Time... Charged particle interactions and detectors 1st May 2014 Fergus Wilson, RAL 41/39
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