State of the Art Electric Propulsion: Vehicles and Energy Supply

Transcription

1 State of the Art Electric Propulsion: Vehicles and Energy Supply Work Package 1 Report December 2013

2 Imprint Leader of Work Package 1: Robin Krutak /Bettina Emmerling, Austrian Energy Agency Authors of the report: Austrian Energy Agency: Robin Krutak, Willy Raimund, Reinhard Jellinek, Christine Zopf-Renner, Bettina Emmerling Institute of Transport Economics: Erik Figenbaum, Randi Hjorthol Danish Road Directorate: Hans Bendsen, Gerd Marbjerg, Rasmus Stahlfest Holck Skov Layout: Andrea Leindl, Austrian Energy Agency Quality management: Margaretha Bannert, Austrian Energy Agency Project Coordinator: Erik Figenbaum, Institute of Transport Economics Cover picture:

3 Preface This report is a part of the project COMPETT (Competitive Electric Town Transport), which is a project financed by national funds which have been pooled together within ERA-NET-TRANSPORT. In January 2011 ERA-NET-TRANSPORT initiated a range of projects about electric vehicles under the theme ELECTROMOBILITY+ concerning topics from the development of battery and charging technology to sociological investigations of the use of electric vehicles. 20 European project consortia have now been initiated including the COMPETT project. COMPETT is a co-operation between The Institute of Transport Economics in Norway, The Austrian Energy Agency, The University College Buskerud in Norway, Kongsberg Innovation in Norway and the Danish Road Directorate. The objective of COMPETT is to promote the use of electric vehicles, particularly with focus on private passenger cars. The main question to answer in the project is How can e-vehicles come in to use to a greater degree? Read more about the project on. The COMPETT project is jointly financed by Electromobility+, Transnova and The Research Council of Norway, FFG of Austria and The Ministry of Science, Innovation and Higher Education (Higher Education Ministry) in Denmark.

4 Table of Content 1 Energy storage for electric propulsion Batteries Hydrogen Electric Propulsion Systems Electric Propulsion Principle Advantages of Electric Engines ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS Battery Electric Vehicles Hybrid Electric Vehicles Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV) Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles wheeler propulsion systems Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles Specifications of vehicles Vehicles on the market Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects) Outlook: Vehicles to come Future costs of vehicles Locations for Charging Points Description of charging systems Normal charging Double speed charging kw semi fast charging kw fast charging Ultra fast charging Battery exchange Vehicle to Grid Charging and hydrogen infrastructure Infrastructure in Austria Infrastructure in Denmark Infrastructure in Norway Costs of infrastructure Normal charge Fast charge Battery swap and charge stand access cost... 76

5 9.4 Summary of charging station costs Abbreviations: Table of Literature... 82

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7 1 Energy storage for electric propulsion 1.1 Batteries The energy for electric vehicles is provided from batteries. The performance of the battery defines both power and range of the car. As especially limited range is one of the most criticised attributes of electric vehicles, a lot of concepts have been and still are developed to boost the performance of the batteries and hence the cars. During the last decades a wide range of battery types was developed, the following shows an overview of the most important types: Lead-Acid Battery (Pb-Gel) Lead batteries were used from the very beginning for electric vehicles, like in the Lohner Porsche (1899). Lead-acid batteries are a technology that has proven itself in the market over many decades. Starter batteries for vehicles with internal combustion engine are usually also lead-acid batteries. The batteries are relatively inexpensive and reliable, but have only little energy density. Therefore the range of vehicles with lead acid batteries lies well below 100 km. Life of these batteries in electric vehicle applications is limited and thus one needs to replace the batteries over the life of the vehicle. Another problem is disposing of used batteries, even when high recycling rates are achieved. Today this battery type still is used for vehicles that don t need a wide range nor high power like vehicles for gardening support in parks. ZEBRA (Na-NiCl 2 ) The abbreviation ZEBRA stands for Zero Emission Battery Research Activities and was invented in the 1980ies. Advantages include a relatively high energy density and no memory effect. The ZEBRA battery requires an operating temperature of at least 240 Celsius (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a). The disadvantage of this concept is that energy is also needed when the vehicle is not in use, as the battery has to be held at this high temperature. Therefore the battery is especially suitable for vehicles that are used on a daily basis. Fleet trials like in Vorarlberg, Austria show that the battery performs well in comparison to Lithium-Ion batteries in winter time. On the other hand, it was observed (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a) that the battery needs more energy than that of a comparable car with Lithium- Ion battery (35 kwh/100 km to 20 kwh/100 km). Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH) Nickel metal hydride batteries are used primarily in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius or the Lexus 450 h. The battery reaches much higher energy densities than nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries, but is more expensive. In hybrid vehicles the NiMH batteries last the whole lifetime of the vehicle. Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion) Lithium-ion batteries consist of a negative electrode made of lithium and a positive electrode of graphite (carbon). Out of all different types of batteries available on the market, lithium-ion batteries have the greatest energy density and therefore are also suitable for longer ranges. There exist a number of different lithium-ion battery types, as described in the following. Energy storage for electric propulsion 7

8 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) This type of battery was often used for the first electric cars with lithium-ion batteries, as it is quite safe and delivers a good performance at a reasonable price. But energy density is less than in most other lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-Polymer (Li-Po) This type of battery is also used for laptops and cell phones, as it offers a higher energy density than LiFePO 4 batteries. Lithium Titanate This type of battery is based on a LiFePO 4 battery, but has an improved anode (lithium titanate) which results in a longer lifetime. The battery provides a very good durability and safety performance which makes it a good choice for fast charging and use at low temperatures. A disadvantage compared to other lithium-ion batteries is the lower energy density. Lithium Silizium With a three times higher energy density than conventional li-ion batteries, this battery type represents the next generation, to be on the market not before Lithium Air Lithium air cells contain a catalyst as positive electrode that charges the lithium negatively when getting in contact with air. The potential in terms of energy density is 10-times higher than today s lithium-ion batteries, reaching levels comparable with the energy density of gasoline. Commercial development is not expected before Energy storage for electric propulsion 8

9 Pb-Gel NiMH Na-NiCl 2 Li-Ion Energy density (Wh/kg) Power density (W/kg) Operating temperature ( C) < to to 60 > to 60 Maintenance free yes yes yes yes Lifetime (years) 3 5 Lifetime (cycles) >600 >2000 Costs in mass production ($/kwh) Special feature technically mature Table 1: Comparison of battery types (Hofmann 2010) fast charging possible requires a heating and cooling system needs battery management system Battery Supporting Systems Battery supporting systems help to improve the performance of batteries: Battery management system A battery for electric vehicles consists of several battery cells. For the efficient use of these cells a battery management system (BMS) is needed. Tasks of the battery management system primarily are: supervising charging and decharging of cells controlling heating and cooling of cells balancing of cells identification of degree of charging estimation of available range documentation of cell history Thus the battery management system has a direct influence on the performance and durability of batteries. Energy storage for electric propulsion 9

10 Cooling and heating system The performance of batteries very much depends on the ambient temperature. Especially under cold weather conditions, the performance weakens. Figure 1 shows this correlation for a Mitsubishi i-miev equipped with lithium-ion batteries. The optimum temperature in terms of energy consumption is at about 20 C. A cooling and heating system can keep the battery in an optimum temperature range and thus help to improve the performance of both, the battery and the vehicle. Energy consumption in kwh/100km Mitsubishi i-miev 30 C 20 C 10 C 0 C -10 C -20 C Ambient temperature Figure 1: Energy consumption Mitsubishi i-miev as a function of the ambient temperature (ÖVK 2012) Battery packaging The hardware around the battery also has a direct influence on the performance and energy density of the battery pack, these are e.g.: tray retention of modules interconnections interface to vehicle 1.2 Hydrogen Hydrogen offers the potential to operate vehicles with zero emissions on the local level. In general, there are two options how hydrogen is used in vehicles: Energy storage for electric propulsion 1. Hydrogen combustion engine: Hydrogen is burned in an internal combustion engine. The only direct emission resulting from this process is water in form of steam and very little emissions of nitrogen oxides. The disadvantage of this concept is the engine efficiency: as it is a combustion engine the efficiency is below 30%. 2. Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen and oxygen react in the fuel cell which produces an electric potential of about Volt. To achieve a higher voltage a number of these cells are put together to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapor. The efficiency of a fuel cell system reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010). Both concepts need hydrogen, which exists in nature primarily in bound form (e.g. in water and hydrocarbons). Hence hydrogen has to be isolated, which is an energy intensive process. The Life Cycle Assessment therefore depends very much on the source of electricity that is used for the production of hydrogen. 10

11 There are different ways to produce hydrogen Stationary production One way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis: by using electricity water (H 2 O) is disaggregated into hydrogen (H 2 ) and oxygen (O). If electricity from renewable sources is used for this process, the production generates no CO 2 emissions. For most of the hydrogen production nowadays fossil fuels are used to produce hydrogen through a process called steam reforming. 45% of the worldwide hydrogen is thus produced from oil, 33% from methane and 15% from coal. Another 7% result as by-products from various chemical production and manufacturing methods (Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010). Mobile Production Another possibility is to produce hydrogen directly in the car by using a reformer. There are a number of more or less complex hydrocarbons that can be used in a reformer; in particular the following materials are possible (Hofmann 2010): CNG LPG Methanol Ethanol Dimethyl ether Diesel modified gasoline Hydrogen from centralized respectively by-product production can be transported in liquid (LH 2 ) or gaseous (GH 2 ) state. For longer distances pipelines and accordingly LH 2 ships are used. For shorter distances special wagons or trucks are used. The storage of hydrogen is very complex. Hydrogen can be stored in liquid or gaseous state. One way is to store the hydrogen as a gas in high-pressure tanks with up to 700 bar or in metal hydride storage tanks. Another way is to store hydrogen in liquid form in cooling tanks which requires a temperature of C (BMLFUW 2008). Energy storage for electric propulsion 11

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13 2 Electric Propulsion Systems 2.1 Electric Propulsion Principle Electric motors convert electric energy into kinetic energy. An electric motor in general consists of two essential parts: 1. a fixed stator in which a magnetic field is produced 2. a magnetic rotor that moves in this magnetic field Through the interchange of the two magnetic elements the rotor starts to move. This movement is finally used to power the wheels of the vehicle. Concept of an electric engine The picture shows an electric engine in parts. The rotor (on the right side in the picture) rotates within the stator. AEA 2.2 Advantages of Electric Engines In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine, vehicles with electric drive show a number of advantages: Recuperation A particularity of the electric motor is that it not only can be used as a motor but also as a generator to produce electric energy. Most of the electric vehicles use this feature when the brake pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the vehicle is reduced by using the motor as a generator that converts the rotation energy of the rotor (which is attached to the wheels through a gearbox and drive shafts) to electricity which is then stored in the battery and hence can be used to power the wheels of the vehicle again (recuperation). Energy Efficiency Electric drives have a motor efficiency of 93 99% (Hofmann 2010) that amounts to a 3 to 4 times higher efficiency factor in comparison to internal combustion engines (ELEKTRA 2009, S.22). Thus the input of energy is much better used to generate a forward movement than in other engines. In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine that provide the energy optimum at a speed of about 70 km/h, the energy consumption of electric vehicles is directly proportional to the rate of velocity (ÖVK 2012). Electric Propulsion Systems 13

14 Less emissions Electric vehicles can use electricity from renewable energies like wind-, water- or solar power. Under the assumption of an annual mileage of 10,000 km and an energy consumption of 15 kwh per 100 kilometres, renewable energies can supply energy for the following numbers of vehicles (BMLFUW 2012): wind power: a 2 MW wind generator can produce the energy needed to power 2,800 electric vehicles water power: a 10 MW small scale water plant generates about 50 million kwh electricity p.a. and hence is able to supply 33,000 electric vehicles. solar power: 14 m 2 of photovoltaic under Austrian sun radiation conditions are enough to run 1 electric car biomass: a 0.25 MW biomass plant produces about 1.75 million kwh electricity, which is enough to run 1,200 electric vehicles. The life cycle analysis which also includes emissions from the production of the car and the energy needed, direct emissions and recycling, shows an 80% advantage in terms of CO 2 for an electric vehicle powered with electricity from renewable energy sources compared to a conventional gasoline car. Besides less greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollutants, electric vehicles also produce less noise, as electric engines run very quiet. No clutch, no gearbox The energy source for the engine is direct current (DC) electricity from batteries or fuel cells (Hofmann 2010). Whereas combustion engines are only able to deliver torque when idle speed is reached, electric engines deliver torque from the very beginning. Hence a clutch and also a gearbox are not necessary for electric vehicles (Hofmann 2010) which save maintenance costs. Electric Propulsion Systems 14

15 3 ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS There are a number of different concepts how to use an electric engine in the vehicle. The most important concepts are explained in the following section. 3.1 Battery Electric Vehicles Wheel hub motor The electric motor is directly integrated into the wheel. The advantages of this concept are that no gearbox, clutch, driveshaft or differential is needed. This makes the car lighter and thus also more energy efficient. This motor concept was used already in the very beginnings of electric mobility, as e.g. by the famous Lohner Porsche electric vehicle in 1899, having a wheel hub motor in each of the front tyres and performing astonishingly: the maximum vehicle speed was 50 km/h and the range was up to 50 km with a total vehicle weight of 980 kg (BMLFUW 2008). Shortly after the two-wheel drive, Porsche and Lohner also developed a four-wheel drive car with wheel hub motors. One of the big disadvantages of this concept so far was that the tyres became very heavy and thus leading to an uncomfortable driving at least at higher speed on uneven pavement. New concepts try to solve this problem by using light weight material and new suspension concepts. wheel hub motor The picture shows the wheel hub concept Active Wheel from Michelin, which arranges break, engine and suspension within the wheel. Nowadays the electric wheel hub concept is again used primarily in electric two wheelers like pedelecs and electric scooters. However, car manufacturers (e.g. Volvo) are planning to bring this concept on the market for electric four wheelers, too. Single motor with reducer gearbox and driveshafts In contrast to the wheel hub motor, this concept does not bring the power directly from the engine to the wheel. Here in fact the electric engine is connected to the wheel by a reducer gearbox and driveshafts. Thus, this concept needs more vehicle parts, but on the other hand does not have the suspension problem, as does the wheel hub motor. This concept is used in most of the electric vehicles currently on the market. ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 15

16 4WD system with dual motors with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts Another concept is to use two electric motors, one for each axis, which enables 4-wheel driving (4WD). Again the motors are connected with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts to bring the power to the wheels. This concept is very seldom used for electric vehicles at the moment, but it is for example the centrepiece of the new Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV. A variation of this concept used in the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4: the engine for the front axis is a combustion engine and the engine for the rear axis is an electric motor. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods. 3.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles Hybrid vehicles are vehicles equipped with two different types of engines. Most of the Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) are equipped both with an electric and a gasoline engine. Meanwhile also HEVs with an electric and a Diesel engine are available. There exist different types of HEV: Parallel HEV: Serial HEV: Mild HEV: Full HEV: Plug-In HEV: Both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels Only one of the engines (namely the electric engine) is connected to the drive wheels. The other engine, normally an internal combustion engine (ICE), powers a generator which produces electricity for the electric engine. These are parallel HEVs with a rather small electric unit where a pure electric driving mode is not possible. These are also parallel HEVs but equipped with an electric unit where a pure electric driving mode at least for very short distances is available. These are vehicles that can be charged from an external energy source, mostly a charging station with a grid connection. Table 2: Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS In the automobile wording the term Micro HEV is also used often. However, here the term hybrid is misleading, as it is not about a vehicle with two different engines. It is rather a vehicle with an internal combustion engine with a start/stop system: the system automatically shuts down when the car stops and restarts the internal combustion engine as soon as the brake pedal is lifted. This helps to reduce the time the engine runs at idle, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. In fact it is a method to increase fuel efficiency but not a HEV concept (TU Wien 2009). In the following section the most important HEV and their concepts will be introduced. 16

17 Full HEV Toyota Prius Toyota Prius is the most famous and also most-sold HEV. It was introduced in 1997 in Japan and in 2003 in USA followed by Europe. Meanwhile more than 2 million cars of this model were sold worldwide. The Toyota Prius is a parallel hybrid, which means that both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels. The THS (Toyota Hybrid Concept) is a power split drivetrain (Hofmann 2010) which enables driving just with the electric engine at least for very short distances (Full HEV). It consists of the following components: 4 cylinder gasoline combustion engine starter generator planetary gear set electric engine and generator inverter battery The combustion engine is connected to the planetary gear set. The sun gear of the planetary gear is connected to the generator. The generator starts the combustion engine and delivers energy to the electric engine and also the battery, thus replacing the classical dynamo. The electric engine directly powers the ring gear which results in forward and backward movements of the car. The second function of the electric engine is to support the combustion engine, especially during acceleration phases. The third function is that the electric engine works as a generator during braking and delivers electricity back into the battery. Prius 3 rd generation Meanwhile the Prius of the 3 rd generation is on the market. It is equipped with a 1.8 litres, 73 kw gasoline engine and a 60 kw electric engine. The fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) 3.9 litres/100 km respectively 89 grams of CO 2 per kilometre. A special novelty of the 3 rd generation Prius is that the heat from the exhaust gases is used to bring the engine to an optimum temperature faster. Mild HEV Honda type configuration The second manufacturer after Toyota that brought a hybrid car on the market is Honda. In 1999 Honda started with the Insight, equipped with the Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system. Honda launched further hybrid models like the Civic in 2006 or a new version of the Insight in This system works as a parallel hybrid the electric engine is placed between the combustion engine and the clutch. ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 17

18 Engine and fuel consumption The actual Honda Insight is equipped with a 1.3 litres, 65 kw gasoline engine and a 10 kw electric engine. The fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) is 4.4 litres/100 km respectively 101 grams of CO 2 per kilometre. Peugeot 4WD hybrid concept A different hybrid concept is used by Peugeot. Peugeot introduced the 3008 HYbrid4 onto the market in 2011, which is especially remarkable for two reasons: 1. It is the first diesel hybrid on the market, and 2. the hybrid concept is used to turn the car into a 4WD. The 119 kw diesel combustion engine powers the front wheels only, whereas the electric engine (27 kw) powers the rear wheels. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods. The price in Austria is about 36,500 EUR including taxes. Engine and fuel consumption Peugeot.com The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 is equipped with a 2 litres, 120 kw Diesel engine and a 27 kw electric engine. It reaches a fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) of 3.8 litres/100 km and 99 grams of CO 2 per kilometre, respectively. ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 18

19 3.3 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Toyota Prius PHEV type The next generation of hybrid vehicles on the market are Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). Plug- In indicates that the car can be charged with electricity from the grid. For that reason PHEV vehicles are equipped with a bigger battery than the HEV and hence enable driving over longer distances in pure electric mode. An example of this category is the Toyota Prius PHEV. Car Model Battery type Battery capacity Pure electric range Toyota Prius III Nickel-metal hydrid 1.3 kwh 2 km Toyota Prius Plug-In Lithium-ion 5.2 kwh 25 km Table 3: Battery capacity Toyota Prius The battery of the Prius PHEV exactly has 4 times the capacity of the Prius (5.2 to 1.3 kwh). The Prius PHEV battery can be charged on the grid and enables pure electric driving of up to 25 km. The combustion engine is used in the same way as in the Toyota Prius and charges the battery if a lower level is reached or fuels the car on longer distance trips (> 25 km). Using a home charging station, the Prius PHEV needs 90 minutes to be fully reloaded. The price in Austria is about 37,500 EUR including taxes. 4WD type Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV consists of two electric engines one on the front axis and one on the rear axis, a gasoline internal combustion engine and a 12 kwh lithium-ion battery. With this equipment the vehicle provides different modes of driving: EV Drive Mode: Series Hybrid Mode: EV Drive Mode is an all-electric mode in which the front and rear motors drive the vehicle using only electricity from the drive battery. In Series Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine operates as a generator supplying the electric motors with electricity. The system switches to this mode when the remaining charge in the battery falls below a predetermined level and when more powerful performance is required, such as accelerating to pass a vehicle or climbing a steep gradient such as a slope. Parallel Hybrid Mode: In Parallel Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine provides most of the motive power, assisted by the electric motors as required. The system switches to this mode for higher-speed driving when the gasoline engine operates at peak efficiency. Table 4: Driving Modes Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 19

20 3.4 Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV) A special concept are electric vehicles that use a combustion engine attached to a generator in order to produce electricity to enable additional kilometres of driving. When the battery is running low, the internal combustion engine is started and powers a generator that feeds electricity to the electric motor and the battery. As the combustion engine always runs in the optimal number of revolutions per minute (rpm), the engine works very efficiently. This concept is for example used in the Opel Ampera, which has an electric range of up to 83 km and using the internal combustion engine a combined range of 500 km! 3.5 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles Similar to a range extender, also a fuel cell can be used for on-board production of for powering the vehicle. In a fuel cell hydrogen and oxygen react, producing an electric potential of about Volt in one cell (BMLFUW 2008). To achieve a higher voltage, a number of these cells are assembled to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapour. The engine efficiency of a fuel cell reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010). If a reformer is used, other energy sources can also be used to fuel the car, e.g.: CNG LPG methanol ethanol dimethyl ether Diesel modified gasoline From these energy sources, the reformer produces hydrogen which is then used in the fuel cell. As the energy sources are not burned as in a combustion engine, no local emissions are produced. In general hydrogen which is produced internally through on-board auto thermal reformers offers little GHG benefit compared to advanced conventional powertrains or hybrids 2. The fuel cell system can be used solitaire to power the electric motor, or in combination with another engine. Hence different types of fuel cell vehicles are constructed: ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS Fuel cell electric vehicles Fuel cell hybrid vehicles Fuel cell plug-in hybrid vehicles 2 Well-to-wheels analysis fo future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Version 2c, march 2007, 20

21 3.6 2-wheeler propulsion systems Power assist Pedelec bicycle type Electric motors are also used in bicycles: a small motor delivers additional power while pedalling. The so called pedelec is the abbreviation of PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle. In Austria meanwhile every 10 th bicycle that is sold, is equipped with an electric motor. There are a number of reasons why pedelecs are more and more chosen: cycling with a pedelec is less exhausting in comparison to a conventional bike up-hills are easier to manage less sweating in the same time longer distances can be reached These number of advantages helps to win new target groups for a sustainable way of driving. The electric motor assists when pedalling up to 25 km/h and some pedelecs recharge the batteries when going downhill (recuperation). Pedelecs normally have a range - of kilometres without recharging, depending on the model. The costs for a good quality pedelec are about 1,500 2,500 Euro, whereas energy costs amount only to 0.12 cent/km in comparison to 7.0 cent/km for a car (Koch 2012). Meanwhile there are hundreds of different models of pedelecs available on the market. Hence there have been established some websites to give a market overview, for example: There are only a few power train producers for pedelecs on the market which are used by all (quality) bicycle manufacturers; these are predominately Bionics, Bosch and Panasonic. ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 21

22 There exist three different solutions for the construction of pedelecs: Rear wheel hub engine AEA An electric wheel hub engine is installed in the rear wheel. This leads to better traction on slippery surfaces. On the other side, the handling of the bike is weak, as the engine is mounted in the rear part of the bicycle. Middle engine The engine is placed in the middle of the bike, which makes the handling easier. Costs are in general higher than for wheel hub solutions. AEA Front wheel hub engine ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS AEA This concept uses a wheel hub engine in the front wheel. The danger of slipping away is higher with this construction, as the front wheel is heavier and has only little traction, in comparison to the rear wheel. The concept is especially useful for bicycles which are used to carry children or also goods, as the front engine balances the bike. 22

23 3.7 Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles E-scooters are already mass-produced and are available from various vendors although the selection from OEM manufactures is still very low. E-scooters have the potential to replace two-wheelers with internal combustion engines and hence reduce noise, CO 2 emissions and air pollutants. One of the first e-scooters from an OEM manufacturer available in Europe is the Peugeot e-vivacity. Peugeot e-vivacity The Peugeot e-vivacity is equipped with an 3kW electric motor. The range ist between km. The Scooter is already available in Austria for 4.200,- EUR. AEA Also electric motor bikes are available on the market, e.g. the Vectrix or BMW. BMW C_evolution AEA The BMW C_evolution is equipped with an 11kW electric motor delivering a peak performance of 35kW. The range of the vehicle is about 100km. It will be available in Austria from April Rear wheel hub motor AEA All these vehicles and also the BMW C_evolution use a rear wheel hub motor as an engine. ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS 23

24 4 Specifications of vehicles In Austria financial incentives and purchase tax credits are offered for new cars with alternative propulsion systems: e.g. a tax credit of 500 EUR for hybrid vehicles. Electric vehicles are exempted from the purchase tax and the annual motor vehicle tax, resulting in about 4,000 EUR savings over five years. Fleet owners receive a funding if they change from conventional to electric vehicles. The rates of financial support are staggered according to the type of vehicle introduced, the level of CO 2 reduction achieved and the amount of renewable energy used: Up to 4,000 EUR are granted for purchasing EVs, if powered with renewable energy, otherwise only 2,000 EUR. Since 2013 also PHEVs and REEVs are eligible within the new funding regime and get subsidies from 500 3,000 EUR, depending on the level of CO 2 reduction and amount of renewable energy used. Pedelecs are granted with 200 resp. 400 EUR (when powered with green electricity), E-scooters get subsidies from EUR. In Vienna electric duty vehicles get a subsidy of 10,000 EUR Denmark has a number of preferential treatments for electric vehicles. BEVs and FCEVs are exempted from the registration tax until the end of This is an essential bonus, as the current Danish registration tax for passenger cars is very high (up to 180%) and is based on the value of the car plus VAT. Both categories are also exempted from annual tax until 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012). On the other side, there is no tax reduction on hybrid vehicles; therefore they are hardly sold in Denmark (DRD 2012). Norway: s quoted are without destination charges (transportation etc. usually 7,000 10,000 NOK / 937 1,339 EUR), but including a 2,400 NOK / 320 EUR end-of-life fee which will be returned to those who in the end deliver their vehicle for recycling or scrapping. Electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles are exempted from VAT as well as from the vehicle purchase tax. s for plug-in hybrid vehicles include 25% VAT and the vehicle purchase tax. The vehicles purchase tax is levied on all vehicles with combustion engines. It is based on the weight of the vehicle, the combustion engine maximum power and the CO 2 emission of the vehicle. In general, the sum of these taxes on PHEV vehicles is low, compared to gasoline and diesel vehicles. Hybrid vehicles in general, including plug-in hybrids, get a 15% deduction of weight (as of ) prior to the calculation of the weight tax because of the additional weight of the electrical systems and the battery. 24

25 The annual motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles is 405 NOK / 54 EUR. The tax is NOK / EUR per year for vehicles with combustion engine. Electric vehicles are also subject to a reduced company car tax rate (50%). Mark: Unless otherwise stated, the quoted car prices in the following section are minimum prices for end consumers, including all additional costs (e.g. taxes etc.). As a currency exchange value for NKK and DKK to EUR the average exchange rate in 2012 was used (1EUR=7,5DKK=7,47NOK). Specifications of vehicles 25

26 4.1 Vehicles on the market BEV drive Bolloré Bluecar BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 30 kwh km Size (l-b-h) ,000 EUR + 80 EUR/month for the battery) Bolloré Smart ED Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 17.6 kwh 140 km cm 19,420 EUR AEA Smart ED Brabus Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 150 km cm n.a. Daimler Specifications of vehicles 26

27 German E-Cars Stromos Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 19.5 kwh 120 km cm 31,500 EUR AEA Mia Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) mia electric *) including EUR for the battery **) version with 12 kwh battery Mia L Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) mia electric *) including EUR for the battery **) version with 12 kwh batter BEV Lithium-Ion 8/12 kwh 80/125 km cm 27,952 EUR* 159,900 NOK (21,406 EUR) 186,900NOK** (24,920 EUR) BEV Lithium-Ion 8/12 kwh 80/125 km cm 30,036 EUR* 165,900 NOK (22,209 EUR) 192,900NOK** (24,920 EUR) Specifications of vehicles 27

28 Citroen C-Zero Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 16 kwh 150 km cm 27,588 EUR 169,900 NOK (22,653 EUR) 215,990 DKK (28,799 EUR) AEA Mitsubishi I-MiEV Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 16 kwh 150 km cm 29,500 EUR 168,300 NOK ( 22,440 EUR) 209,995 DKK (27,999 EUR) BMW i3 BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 49 kwh 160 km Available from 11/ ,700 EUR From 250,300 NOK (33,373 EUR) BMW Specifications of vehicles 28

29 Tesla Tesla Model S Battery Battery Capacity BEV Lithium-Ion kwh km from 72,000 EUR 446,600 NOK (59,786 EUR) 563,000 DKK (75,067 EUR) Renault Zoe BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 22 kwh 160 km Size (l-b-h) AEA 20,780* EUR 161,400** DKK (21,520 EUR) *) Battery for rent only: 79 Euro/month **)Battery for rent only starting by: 93 Euro/month Renault Renault Kangoo ZE Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kwh 170 km cm 24,360* EUR 204,000* NOK (27,200 EUR) 158,900* DKK (21,187 EUR) *) Battery for rent only starting by 86,40 EUR, 715 NOK (96 EUR) or 789DKK (105 EUR) Specifications of vehicles 29

30 Ford Focus BEV Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 23 kwh 160 km cm 39,990 EUR 259,900 NOK (34,653 EUR) AEA Nissan Leaf Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 24 kwh 175 km cm 37,490 EUR 231,790 NOK (31,029 EUR) 209,690 DKK (27,958 EUR) Renault Fluence ZE Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kwh 170 km cm 25,950* EUR AEA *) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month Specifications of vehicles 30

31 Peugeot I-On Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 16 kwh 150 km cm 29,640 EUR 193,300 NOK (25,773 EUR) 215,990 DKK (28,7899 EUR) AEA VW E-up BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 18.7 kwh 150 km Size (l-b-h) cm Available from Autumn 2013 ~ 22,500 EUR 182,700 NOK (24,360 EUR) Plug-in Hybrid AEA Toyota Prius Plug-in PHEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 5.2 kwh 20 km (electric only) km in total n.a. Size (l-b-h) cm 37,920 EUR 327,300 NOK (43,640 EUR) Specifications of vehicles 31

32 AEA Volvo V60 Plug-in PHEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 12 kwh 50 km electric only km in total n.a. Size (l-b-h) cm 58,900 EUR 610,400 NOK (81,387 EUR) Range Extender Electric Vehicles AEA Opel Ampera Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) REEV Lithium-Ion 16 kwh 83 km electric only 500 km in total cm 45,900 EUR 369,900 NOK* (49,518 EUR) *) Campaign model sold fall 2013 for 349,900 NOK, this model used to cost more than 400,000 Chevrolet Chevrolet Volt Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) REEV Lithium-Ion 16 kwh 61 km electric only 610 km in total cm 42,950 EUR Specifications of vehicles 32

33 Mitsubishi Outlander Plug-in RE AEA Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) REEV Lithium-Ion 12 kwh 880 km in total 55 km electric only cm 48,000 EUR From 434,900 NOK (57,987 EUR) Fisker Karma Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) REEV Lithium-Ion 20 kwh 83 km electric only 480 km in total cm AEA Quadricles no longer sold Renault Twizy 45/80*) Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 6.1 kwh 120/100 km cm 69,300 NOK (9,240 EUR) 6,990/7,690 EUR **) 58,540*** DKK (7,786 EUR) *) maximal Speed AEA **) Battery for rent only: 50 to72 Euro/month *** Battery for rent only: 70 to 91 Euro/month Specifications of vehicles 33

34 Buddy Electric Buddy Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Ni-Mh n.a. 120 km cm 169,900 NOK (22,744 EUR) AEA Tazzari Zero Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV Lithium-Ion 14 kwh 150 km cm 19,000 EUR 162,490 NOK (21,752 EUR) Moser Parts Specifications of vehicles 34

35 Light Duty Vehicles Goupil Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Lead-Acid kwh km 322* cm 4 m³/ n.a. kg 20,000 EUR AEA *) large edition: length 370 cm AEA Citroen Piaggio Porter Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Lead-Acid n.a. 110 km cm 4 m³/ kg 20,500 EUR Citroen Berlingo Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Zebra 23,5 kwh 120 km cm 3.3 m³/500 kg 43,000 EUR Peugeot Peugeot Partner Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Zebra and Li-Ion 22.5 kwh 170 km cm 3 m³/ 600 kg EUR with ZEBRA Battery 241,000 NOK (32,262 EUR) with Li-Ionen Battery Specifications of vehicles 35

36 Renault Kangoo ZE Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kwh 170 km cm 3.5 m³/650 kg 24,360 EUR* 190,000 NOK* (25,333 EUR) AEA *) Battery for rent only: 86,4 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114 EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway AEA Ford Transit Connect Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity n.a. BEV Lithium-Ion 28 kwh 130 km cm 3.8 m³/410 kg AEA Renault Kangoo MaxiZE Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kwh 170 km cm 3.5 m³/650 kg EUR* 198,000 NOK (23,810 EUR) *) Kangoo maxi Length 460 cm, Loading cap. 4,6 m³ **) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114 EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway Specifications of vehicles 36

37 Mercedes APA-OTS/Strasser German E.cars Mercedes Vito E-Cell Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity n.a. Iveco Daily BEV Lithium-Ion 36 kwh 130 km cm kg BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 34/51 kwh 90/140 km Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity m³ 508 (548) (263) cm ~ 100,000 EUR German E-cars Plantos Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity BEV Lithium-Ion 40 kwh 120 km n.a. 950 kg 79,500 EUR Specifications of vehicles 37

38 Electric Scooters Peugeot e-vivacity Battery Battery Capacity Length /Weight BEV Lithium-Ion 3 kwh 60 km 123 cm /115 kg 4,199 EUR AEA IO Scooter 1500 GT Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) BEV SiGel 1.7 kwh 60 km cm EUR io-scooter Etropolis Future Battery Battery Capacity Length /Weight BEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 70 km 180 cm /135 kg 2,195 EUR Etropolis Specifications of vehicles Honda Honda EV-neo Battery Battery Capacity Length /Weight n.a. BEV Lithium-Ion 0.9 kwh 34 km 183 cm /110 kg 38

39 Foto: : E-max 90S / 110S BEV Battery Silicon/Silizium- Battery Capacity 4 x 12V / 60Ah 90 km Length /Weight 190 cm /160 kg 2,995 /3,295 EUR DKK NOK 4.2 Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects) Mercedes F-Cell 2011 model FCEV 400 km Daimler Hyundai Tucson ix 35 FCEV 588 km Hyundai Specifications of vehicles 39

40 4.3 Outlook: Vehicles to come Audi e-tron Detroit Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Available from BEV Lithium-Ion 49 kwh 250 km cm n.a n.a AEA BMW i8 Battery Battery Capacity Available from PHEV Lithium-Ion n.a 35 km electric only n.a. ~ 200,000 EUR BMW Ford C-max Energi Battery Battery Capacity Available from PHEV Lithium-Ion n.a 32 km electric only n.a. n.a Ford Specifications of vehicles Ford Ford Mondeo Energi Battery Battery Capacity Available from PHEV n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 40

41 Mahindra Reva NXR Battery Battery Capacity Available from BEV Lithium-Ion or Lead-Acid n.a. 120 /80 km n.a. n.a. REVA Mercedes B-class F-Cell Battery Battery Capacity Available from FCEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 350 km n.a NOK (1,539 EUR) /month* Mercedes *) Norway: Leasing only; excl. VAT Mercedes SLS E-Cell BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 60 kwh 250 km Available from June 2013 ~ 420,000 EUR Mercedes Specifications of vehicles 41

42 Nissan NV200 van BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 24 kwh 175 km Available from 2013*) n.a. Nissan *) tested by FedEx in London VW Golf Blue E-Motion Battery Battery Capacity Size (l-b-h) Available from BEV Lithium-Ion 26.5 kwh 150 km cm n.a n.a AEA Specifications of vehicles 42

43 picture n.a. VW Golf Plug-in Hybrid PHEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 8 kwh 50 km electric only Available from 2014 ~ 25,000 EUR picture n.a. VW Passat Plug-in hybrid PHEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity n.a 50 km electric only Available from 2014 n.a VW Caddy E-motion BEV Battery Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 26 kwh n.a Available from 2014 n.a Volkswagen Volvo Volvo C-30 BEV Battery Battery Capacity Available from BEV Lithium-Ion 24 kwh 150 km n.a. n.a. Specifications of vehicles 43

44 4.4 Future costs of vehicles The costs of electric vehicles are a major barrier for a broader market implementation at the moment. Depending on the car model, EVs cost up to 2.5 times more than comparable cars with internal combustion. Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 Vehicle example Fiat 500 I-MiEV VW Polo Nissan Leaf Skoda Octavia EV Mercedes E-Class Opel Ampera [ ] Performance [kw] Energy costs [ /km] 0,06 0,03 0,07 0,03 0,097 0,03 0,09 0,03 Maintenance costs [ /km] 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 Range [km] > > > > Table 5: Indicators for conventional and electric vehicles in the reference scenario for 2013 (Umweltbundesamt 2012) So the development of the prices will have a major influence on the future market chances of electric vehicles. The most important cost driver is the price of the battery. Source Technical University Vienna (Technische Universität Wien 2009):) Starting at 700 EUR in 2010, the prices decrease to less than one third till Figure 1: Development of costs for lithium-ion batteries (Technische Universität Wien 2009) In this scenario, the development of fuel cell systems costs starts in 2020, as before this time line no mass market production is expected to happen. Specifications of vehicles Figure 2: Development of costs for fuel cell systems (Technische Universität Wien 2009) 44

45 Source European Hydrogen Association (EHA) Another source regarding the development of costs is the study carried out by the European Hydrogen Association (McKinsey & Company 2011) using data from participating car manufacturers like BMW, Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, KIA, Nissan, Renault, Toyota, and Volkswagen. Whereas the development of battery costs is predicted by EHA quite similar as by the source mentioned before, the development of fuel cell stack costs shows a different and much more optimistic picture, with a mean price for fuel stacks of 43 EUR/kw in The reason for this is that EHA expects a very soon FCEV mass market uptake with already 100,000 FCEV units installed by 2015 and 1,000,000 FCEV units installed by Figure 3: Development of battery costs for batteries and fuel cell stacks (McKinsey & Company 2011) The same source also shows the development for different types of drivetrains for cars from the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) perspective. Whether a car seems to be expensive or not, not only depends on the sales price, but on all costs related to buying and running a vehicle. Cost categories considered in a TCO analysis (Österreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag 2012): Financing costs (depreciation, taxes, interest rate) Operating costs for fuel/energy Insurance costs Maintenance costs Administration costs for fleet operators like car selection processes and accounting Other costs (e.g. parking fees, road tolls, car washing etc.) Specifications of vehicles 45

46 From this perspective, cars with internal combustion engine remain cheaper than electric vehicles in the near future, but price differences are balancing in the long run: Figure 4: Total Cost of Ownership development for FCEV, BEV, PHEV, and ICE for C/D segment vehicles (McKinsey & Company 2011) E-Car-Sharing A different approach to reduce the costs of (electric) car driving is car sharing. There exist already a number of car sharing services with electric vehicles in Europe: Specifications of vehicles Autolib is a public car sharing-service with electric cars in Paris. The service was started in December The cars can be used for one way trips also. Meanwhile 1740 Bolloré Bluecars are running and are offered for rent at 1100 stations charging points were installed. The target is to reach 3000 cars and 6000 charging points until

47 Autolib rates Package Member fee Rate Autolib' 1 day 0 / day 9 per 1/2h Autolib' 1 week 10 / week 7 per 1/2h Autolib' 1 month 25 / month 6.5 per 1/2h Autolib' 1 Year Premium 120 / 1 year (10 /month) 5 per 1/2h Shared 16h Premium 100 /month for 8h of shared utilization Number of included subscribers: 4 Package to share between 1 to 4 users, for a 2-month subscription. Table 6: Rates for Autolib Move About was founded in 2007 and has launched according to their own disclosures world's first public car sharing service with EV s (in Oslo). Till now almost 100 electric vehicles are in operation in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. Main areas of the service are the cities of Oslo, Gothenburg, Helsingborg, and Copenhagen. Move About operates both public car sharing services and closed systems to corporate customers. For a fixed monthly fee, Move About provides complete financing and service for companies, including: 24/7 access to dedicated vehicles 24 hour roadside assistance a web based vehicle booking system individual contact-less access cards vehicle insurance maintenance and service change to summer / winter tires fill wiper fluid, check tire pressure, etc. regular cleaning inside and out Specifications of vehicles 47

48 Car2go is a subsidiary of Daimler AG that provides car sharing services in European and North American cities with Smarts. In Amsterdam Car2go operates 300 electric smarts, which are available for one way trips also. If the battery performance display sinks below 20% (shown on the round instrument on the left), the journey has to be stopped at the nearest charging station for reloading. Customers pay 0,29 per minute and 14,90 per hour. If the car is parked between drives the rate is 0,19 per minute. Specifications of vehicles 48