Fundamentals of Ecology

Transcription

1 Fundamentals of Ecology FIFTH EDITION Eugene P. Odum, Ph.D. Late of University of Georgia Institute of Ecology Gary W. Barrett, Ph.D. Odum Professor of Ecology, University of Georgia Institute of Ecology Universitats- und Landesbibliothek Darmstadt Bibliothek Biologie iav.-nr. r THOIVISOIM BROOKS/COLE Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States

2 Brief Contents Foreword xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 The Scope of Ecology 1 2 The Ecosystem 17 3 Energy in Ecological Systems 77 4 BiogeochemicaI Cycles Limiting and Regulatory Factors Population Ecology Community Ecology Ecosystem Development Landscape Ecology 374 K 10 Regional Ecology: Major Ecosystem Types and Biomes Global Ecology Statistical Thinking for Students of Ecology 479 Guest Author R. Cary Tuckfield Glossary 511 References 535 Credits 583 Index 585

3 Contents Foreword xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 The Scope of Ecology 1 1. Ecology: History and Relevance to Humankind 2 2. Levels-of-Organization Hierarchy 4 3. The Emergent Property Principle 7 4. Transcending Functions and Control Processes 9 5. Ecological Interfacing About Models Disciplinary Reductionism to Transdisciplinary Holism 15 2 The Ecosystem Concept of the Ecosystem and Ecosystem Management Trophic Structure of the Ecosystem Gradients and Ecotones Examples of Ecosystems Ecosystem Diversity 37 * 6. Study of Ecosystems Biological Control of the Geochemical Environment: The Gaia Hypothesis Global Production and Decomposition Microcosms, Mesocosms, and Macrocosms Ecosystem Cybernetics Technoecosystems Concept of the Ecological Footprint Classification of Ecosystems 75

4 x CONTENTS 3 Energy in Ecological Systems Fundamental Concepts Related to Energy: The Laws of Thermodynamics Solar Radiation and the Energy Environment Concept of Productivity Energy Partitioning in Food Chains and Food Webs Energy Quality: emergy Metabolism and Size of Individuals: The 3/4 Power Principle Complexity Theory, Energetics of Scale, and the Law of Diminishing Returns Concepts of Carrying Capacity and Sustainability Net Energy Concept An Energy-Based Classification of Ecosystems Energy Futures Energy and Money Biogeochemical Cycles Basic Types of Biogeochemical Cycles Cycling of Nitrogen Cycling of Phosphorus Cycling of Sulfur 151 '" 5. Cycling of Carbon The Hydrologic Cycle Turnover and Residence Times Watershed Biogeochemistry Cycling of Nonessential Elements Nutrient Cycling in the Tropics Recycling Pathways: The Cycling Index Global Climate Change Limiting and Regulatory Factors Concept of Limiting Factors: The Liebig Law of the Minimum Factor Compensation and Ecotypes Conditions of Existence as Regulatory Factors Soil: Organizing Component for Terrestrial Ecosystems Fire Ecology Review of Other Physical Limiting Factors Biological Magnification of Toxic Substances Anthropogenic Stress as a Limiting Factor for Industrial Societies Population Ecology Properties of the Population Basic Concepts of Rate Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase Concept of Carrying Capacity 241

5 CONTENTS xi 5. Population Fluctuations and Cyclic Oscillations Density-Independent and Density-Dependent Mechanisms of Population Regulation Patterns of Dispersion The Allee Principle of Aggregation and Refuging Home Range and Territoriality Metapopulation Dynamics Energy Partitioning and Optimization: r- and K-Selection Population Genetics Life History Traits and Tactics Community Ecology Types of Interaction Between Two Species Coevolution Evolution of Cooperation: Group Selection Interspecific Competition and Coexistence Positive/Negative Interactions: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Allelopathy Positive Interactions: Commensalism, Cooperation, and Mutualism Concepts of Habitat, Ecological Niche, and Guild Biodiversity Paleoecology: Community Structure in Past Ages From Populations and Communities to Ecosystems and Landscapes Ecosystem Development Strategy of Ecosystem Development 337 ' 2. Concept of the Climax Evolution of the Biosphere Microevolution Compared with Macroevolution, Artificial Selection, and Genetic Engineering Relevance of Ecosystem Development to Human Ecology Landscape Ecology Landscape Ecology: Definition and Relation to Levels-of-Organization Concept Landscape Elements Biodiversity at the Community and Landscape Levels Island Biogeography Neutral Theory Temporal and Spatial Scale Landscape Geometry Concept of Landscape Sustainability Domesticated Landscapes 404

6 xii CONTENTS 10 Regional Ecology: Major Ecosystem Types and Biomes Marine Ecosystems Freshwater Ecosystems Terrestrial Biomes Human-Designed and Managed Systems Global Ecology The Transition from Youth to Maturity: Toward Sustainable Civilizations Ecological-Societal Gaps Global Sustainability Scenarios 472 ^ 5. Long-Term Transitions Statistical Thinking for Students of Ecology 479 Guest Author R. Cary Tuckf ield 1. Ecosystems and Scale Theory, Knowledge, and Research Design The Ecological Study Unit Inference Methods and Reliability Experimental versus Observational Method in Ecology Statistical Thinking in Ecology The Nature of Evidence Evidence and Hypothesis Testing Formulating the Right Problem Publish or "Parish"? The Evidence-Oriented Alternative The Two Ways of Discovery The Weight of Evidence Paradigm 508 Glossary 511 References 535 Credits 583 Index 585