The two simplest atoms. Electron shells and Orbits. Electron shells and Orbits

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1 EET140/ET1 Electronics Semiconductors and Diodes Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Professor Jang Outline Semiconductor Physics The PN junction Biasing the PN junction The diode Trouble Shooting Key Words: Semiconductor, Silicon, PN Junction, Forward Bias, Reverse Bias, Diode ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd ntroduction The basic function of a diode is to restrict current flow to one direction. Bohr model of an atom As seen in this model, electrons circle the nucleus. Atomic structure of a material determines it s ability to conduct or insulate. Forward bias Reverse Bias Current flows No current flow ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 3 FGURE 1 The Bohr model of an atom showing electrons in orbits and around the nucleus, which consists of protons and neutrons. The tails on the electrons indicate motion. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 4 1

2 The two simplest atoms FGURE The two simplest atoms, hydrogen and helium. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 5 Conductors, nsulators, and Semiconductors The ability of a material to conduct current is based on its atomic structure. The orbit paths of the electrons surrounding the nucleus are called shells. Each shell has a defined number of electrons it will hold. This is a fact of nature and can be determined by the formula, N e n. The outer shell is called the valence shell. The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the more conductive the material is. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 6 Atomic number, Electron shells & Orbits, alence electrons, and onization All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order according to their atomic number. The atomic number equals the number of protons in the nucleus, which is the same as the number electrons. Electron shells and Orbits The outmost shell is known as the alence shell and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization (i.e. positive ion and negative ion). ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 7 Electron shells and Orbits FGURE 3 Energy levels increase as the distance from the nucleus increases. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 8

3 Conductors, nsulators, and Semiconductors A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current. The best conductors are singleelement material, such as copper, gold, and aluminum, which are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom. An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal conditions. alence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms. A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. The most common single element semiconductors are silicon, germanium, and carbon. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 9 Energy Bands FGURE 4 Energy band diagram for a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal with unexcited atoms. There are no electrons in the conduction band. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 10 Conductors, nsulators, and Semiconductors The valence shell determines the ability of material to conduct current. A Silicon atom has 4 electrons in its valence ring. This makes it a semiconductor. t takes n electrons or in this case or 18 electrons to fill the valence shell. A Copper atom has only 1 electron in it s valence ring. This makes it a good conductor. t takes n electrons or in this case 3 electrons to fill the valence shell. Covalent Bonding Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms by the interaction of their valence electrons. FGURE 5 Diagrams of the silicon and copper atoms. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 11 FGURE 6 ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 1 3

4 Silicon and Germanium Conduction in Semiconductors FGURE 7 Diagrams of the silicon and germanium atoms. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 13 FGURE 9 Energy band diagram for a pure (intrinsic) silicon crystal with unexcited atoms. There are no electrons in the conduction band. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 14 N-type and P-type P Semiconductors The process of creating N and P type materials is called doping. Other atoms with 5 electrons (pentavalent atom) such as Antimony are added to Silicon to increase the free electrons. N-type Other atoms with 3 electrons (trivalent atoms) such as Boron are added to Silicon to create a deficiency of electrons or hole charges. P-type The Depletion Region p region n region p region n region With the formation of the p and n materials combination of electrons and holes at the junction takes place. This creates the depletion region and has a barrier potential. This potential cannot be measured with a voltmeter but it will cause a small voltage drop. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 15 ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 16 4

5 Biasing the Diode : Forward and Reverse Bias Forward Bias Forward Bias Reverse Bias oltage source or bias connections are + to the p material and to the n material Bias must be greater than.3 for Germanium or.7 for Silicon diodes. The depletion region narrows. oltage source or bias connections are to the p material and + to the n material. Bias must be less than the break down voltage. Current flow is negligible in most cases. The depletion region widens. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 17 FGURE 10 A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers and the voltage due to the barrier potential across the depletion region. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 18 Reverse Bias Forward Bias Measurements With Small oltage Applied FGURE 11 The diode during the short transition time immediately after reverse-bias voltage is applied. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 19 n this case with the voltage applied is less than the barrier potential so the diode for all practical purposes is still in a non-conducting state. Current is very small. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 0 5

6 Forward Bias Measurements With Applied oltage Greater Than the Barrier oltage. deal Diode Characteristic Curve With the applied voltage exceeding the barrier potential the now fully forward biased diode conducts. Note that the only practical loss is the.7 olts dropped across the diode. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 1 n this characteristic curve we do not consider the voltage drop or the resistive properties. Current flow proportionally increases with voltage. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd - Characteristic for Forward Bias - Characteristic for Reverse Bias (a) - characteristic curve for forward bias. Part (b) illustrates how the dynamic resistance r d decreases as you move up the curve (r d F / F ). ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 3 - characteristic curve for reverse-biased diode. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 4 6

7 The complete - characteristic curve for a diode Forward-bias and reverse-bias connections showing the diode symbol. ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 5 ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 6 Practical Diode Characteristic Curve The deal Diode Model n most cases we consider only the forward bias voltage drop of a diode. Once this voltage is overcome the current increases proportionally with voltage.this drop is particularly important to consider in low voltage applications. F 0 F R R 0 A BAS LMT R BAS ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 7 ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 8 7

8 The Practical Diode Model The Complete Diode Model F 0.7 (silicon) F 0.3 (germanium) BAS R LMT F 0 R BAS F LMT F R F R LMT LMT ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 9 + F F R ' 0.7 Frd BAS LMT r ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 30 ' d Troubleshooting Diodes Testing a diode is quite simple, particularly if the multimeter used has a diode check function. With the diode check function a specific known voltage is applied from the meter across the diode. With the diode check function a good diode will show approximately.7 or.3 when forward biased. When checking in reverse bias the full applied testing voltage will be seen on the display. K A A K ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 31 Open Diode n the case of an open diode no current flows in either direction which is indicated by the full checking voltage with the diode check function or high resistance using an ohmmeter in both forward and reverse connections. Shorted Diode n the case of a shorted diode maximum current flows indicated by a 0 with the diode check function or low resistance with an ohmmeter in both forward and reverse connections. Troubleshooting Diodes ET1 Electronics Semiconductors Floyd 3 8

9 EET140/ET1 Electronics Outlines Half Wave Rectifiers Diode Applications Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Professor Jang Full Wave Rectifier DC Power Supply Filter and Regulator C Regulator Zener Diode Troubleshoot Key Words: Half Wave, Full Wave, Rectifier, Power Supply, Regulator, Zener ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd ntroduction The basic function of a DC power supply is to convert an AC voltage (110, 60 Hz) to a smooth DC voltage. The rectifier can be either a half- or Full-wave rectifier. The rectifier convert the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage. The filter eliminates the fluctuation in the rectified voltage and produces a relatively smooth dc voltage. The regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage for variations in the input power line voltage or in the load. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 3 Half Wave Rectifier A half wave rectifier(ideal) allows conduction for only 180 or half of a complete cycle. The output frequency is the same as the input. The average DC or AG p /π When the sinusoidal input voltage ( in ) goes positive, the diode is forwardbiased and conducts current through the load resistor. The current produces an output voltage across the load R L. When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode reversed-biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0. The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the output does not change polarity, it is pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 60 Hz. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 4 1

10 Average value of the half-wave rectified signal Ex -1 What is the average value of the half-wave rectified voltage in Figure? v AG p sin θ area π 1 π π 0 p p sin θ d θ [ cosπ ( cos0)] π p p p [ ( 1) ( 1)] () π π π ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 5 p π π AG 8 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 6 Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectified Output Ex - Sketch the output voltages of each rectifier for the indicated input voltage, as shown in Figure. The N4001 and N4003 are specific rectifier diodes. The effect of the barrier potential on the half-wave rectified output voltage is to reduce the peak value of the input by about 0.7. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 7 The peak output voltage for circuit (a) is p(out) p(in) The peak output voltage for circuit (b) is p(out) p(in) 0.7 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications

11 Half Wave Rectifier - Peak nverse oltage (P) Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage across the diode when it is in reverse bias. The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of voltage. P p(in) Half Wave Rectifier with Transformer-Coupled nput oltage Transformer coupling provides two advantages. First, it allows the source voltage to be stepped up or stepped down as needed. Second, the ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard in the secondary circuit. sec n pri where n N sec /N pri f n>1, stepped up transformer f n<1, Stepped down transformer p(out) p(sec) 0.7 The P occurs at the peak of each half-cycle of the input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased. n this circuit, the P occurs at the peak of each negative half-cycle. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 9 Figure Half-wave rectifier with transformer-coupled input voltage. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 10 Ex -3 Determine the peak value of the output voltage for Figure if the turns ratio is 0.5. Full-Wave Rectifiers A full-wave rectifier allows current to flow during both the positive and negative half cycles or the full 360º. Note that the output frequency is twice the input frequency. AG p π p(pri) p(in) 156 The peak secondary voltage is p(sec) n p(pri) 78 The rectified peak output voltage is p(out) p(sec) ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 11 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 1 3

12 Ex -4 Find the average value of the full-wave rectified voltage in Figure. The Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier This method of rectification employs two diodes connected to a center-tapped transformer. The peak output is only half of the transformer s peak secondary voltage. p π (15) π AG ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 13 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 14 Full-Wave Center Tapped Note the current flow direction during both alternations. Being that it is center tapped, the peak output is about half of the secondary windings total voltage. Each diode is subjected to a P of the full secondary winding output minus one diode voltage drop P p(out) Center-tapped fullwave rectifier with a transformer turns ratio of 1. p(pri) is the peak value of the primary voltage. Center-tapped fullwave rectifier with a transformer turns ratio of. ET1 Electronics Diode Applications Prof. Jang 15 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 16 4

13 Full Wave Rectifier - Peak nverse oltage (P) Ex -5 Show the voltage waveforms across each half of the secondary winding and across R L when a 100 peak sine wave is applied to the primary winding in Figure. Also, what minimum P rating must the diodes have? The peak inverse voltage across D is p (sec) p(sec) P ( 0.7) ( ) p (sec) p (sec) p (sec) p(out) p(sec) / 0.7 p(sec) p(out) P p(out) p(sec) n p(pri) 0.5(100 ) 50 There is a 5 peak across each half of the secondary with respect to ground. The output load voltage has a peak value of 5, less the 0.7 drop across the diode. P p(sec) ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 18 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier The full-wave bridge rectifier takes advantage of the full output of the secondary winding. t employs four diodes arranged such that current flows in the direction through the load during each half of the cycle. When the input cycle is positive as in part (a), diode D 1 and D are forward-biased and conduct current in the direction shown. A voltage is developed across R L which looks like the positive half of the input cycle. During this time, diodes D 3 and D 4 are reverse-biased. When the input cycle is negative as in part (b), diode D 3 and D 4 are forward-biased and conduct current in the same direction through R L as during the positive half-cycle. During negative half-cycle, D 1 and D are reversebiased. A full-wave rectified output voltage appears across R L as a result of this action. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 19 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier-Peak nverse oltage Bridge Output oltage: p(out) p(sec) p(out) p(sec) ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 0 5

14 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier The P for a bridge rectifier is approximately half the P for a center-tapped rectifier. P p(out) +0.7 Ex -6 Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure. Assuming the practical model, what P rating is required for the diodes? The transformer is specified to have a 1 rms secondary voltage for the standard 110 across the primary. p(sec) rms 1.414(1 ) 17 p(out) p(sec) Note that in most cases we take the diode drop into account. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 1 P p(out) ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd Power Supply Filters And Regulators As we have seen, the output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC. With filtration and regulation this pulsating voltage can be smoothed out and kept to a steady value. Power Supply Filters and Regulators A capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such that it fills in the gaps between each peak. This reduces variations of voltage. This voltage variation is called ripple voltage. Figure illustrates the filtering concept showing a nearly smooth dc output voltage from filter. The small amount of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is called ET1 ripple. Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 4 6

15 Power Supply Filters And Regulators The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite clear. The capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time between peaks is shorter. Ripple Factor The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and defined as r r(pp) / DC ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications 5 r ( pp) DC 1 ( ) fr C L p ( rect ) 1 (1 ) fr C p ( rect ) L ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 6 Surge Current in the Capacitor-nput Filter Being that the capacitor appears as a short during the initial charging, the current through the diodes can momentarily be quite high. To reduce risk of damaging the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor is placed in series with the filter and load. C Regulators ET1 Electronics Diode Applications Prof. Jang 7 ET1 Electronics The 7800 Diode series Applications three-terminal fixed Prof. positive Jang voltage regulators. 8 7

16 Power Supply Filters And Regulators Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining ripple and maintaining the output voltage to a specific value. Typically this regulation is performed by an integrated circuit regulator. There are many different types used based on the voltage and current requirements. Power Supply Filters and Regulators How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is measured by its regulation percentage. There are two types of regulation, line and load. Line and load regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change in voltage (line) or current (load) stated as a percentage. Line Regulation ( OUT / N )100% Load Regulation (( NL FL )/ FL )100% Load Regulation NL FL ( )100% ( )100% 0.64% 5.15 FL ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 9 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 30 Diode Limiters Limiting circuits limit the positive or negative amount of an input voltage to a specific value. Ex -7 What would you expect to see displayed on an oscilloscope connected across R L in the limiter shown in Figure. R L ( ) out R + R 1 L in RL 1.0 kω p( out) ( ) p( in) ( ) R + R 1.1kΩ 1 L ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 31 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications 3 8

17 Ex -8 Figure shows a circuit combining a positive limiter. Determine the output voltage waveform. Ex -9 Describe the output voltage waveform for the diode limiter in Figure. BAS R3 ( ) R + R SUPPLY 0Ω ( )1 100Ω + 0Ω ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 33 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 34 ntroduction Zener Diode The zener diode is a silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes because it is designed for operation in the reversebreakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture. The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across its terminals within given limits of line or load change. Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment. Zener Diodes A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that it is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that its forward characteristics are just like a normal diode. ET1 Electronics This particular Special zener Purpose circuit Diodes will work to maintain 10 Prof. across Jang the load. 35 olt-ampere characteristic is shown in this Figure with normal operating regions for rectifier diodes and for zener diodes shown as shaded areas. 36 9

18 Zener Breakdown Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche break down occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage ( z ), the field is intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current. The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the doping process Low voltage zeners less than 5 operate in the zener breakdown range. Those designed to operate more than 5 operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range. Zeners are commercially available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 to 00. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 37 Breakdown Characteristics Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode s characteristic curve. As the reverse voltage ( R ) is increased, the reverse current ( R ) remains extremely small up to the knee of the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, Z. At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (Z Z ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 38 Zener Equivalent Circuit Figure (b) represents the practical model of a zener diode, where the zener impedance (Z Z ) is included. Since the actual voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener current ( Z ) produces a small change in zener voltage ( Z ), as illustrated in Figure (c). Ex -10 A zener diode exhibits a certain change in Z for a certain change in Z on a portion of the linear characteristic curve between ZK and ZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the zener impedance? Z Z Z Z Zener diode equivalent circuit models and the characteristic curve illustrating Z Z. 39 Z Z Z Z 50 m 5m 10Ω ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 40 10

19 Ex -11 Figure shows a zener diode regulator designed to hold 10 at the output. Assume the zener current ranges from 4 ma maximum ( ZK ) to 40 ma maximum ( ZM ). What are the minimum and maximum input voltages for these current?. For minimum current, The voltage across the 1.0 kω resistor is R ZK R (4 ma)(1 kω) 4 Since R N Z, N R + Z For the maximum zener current, the voltage across the 1.0 kω resistor is R (40 ma)(1.0 kω) 40 Therefore, N Zener diode Data Sheet nformation As with most devices, zener diodes have given characteristics such as temperature coefficients and power ratings that have to be considered. The data sheet provides this information. Z : zener voltage ZT : zener test current Z ZT : zener mpedance ZK : zener knee current ZM : maximum zener current ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 41 Partial ET1 data Electronics sheet for the Diodes 1N478-1N4764 and Applications series 1 W zener diodes. Floyd 4 Zener Diode Applications Zener Regulation with a arying nput oltage Troubleshooting Although precise power supplies typically use C type regulators, zener diodes can be used alone as a voltage regulator. As with all troubleshooting techniques we must know what is normal. A properly functioning zener will work to maintain the output voltage within certain limits despite changes in load. ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 43 ET1 Electronics Diodes and Applications Floyd 44 11

20 EET140/ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Professor Jang Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Outlines ntroduction to Zener Diode oltage regulation and limiting The varactor diode LEDs and photodiodes Special Diodes Key Words: Zener Diode, oltage Regulation, LED, Photodiode, Special Diode ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd ntroduction The zener diode is a silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes because it is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture. The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it s terminals within given limits of line or load change. Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment. Zener Diodes A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that it is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown. This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a zener. Note that it s forward characteristics are just like a normal diode. This particular zener circuit will work to maintain 10 across the load. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 3 olt-ampere characteristic is shown in this Figure with normal operating regions for rectifier diodes and for zener diodes shown as shaded areas. 4 1

21 Zener Breakdown Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche break down occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. A zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region. As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage ( z ), the field is intense enough to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current. The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the doping process Low voltage zeners less than 5 operate in the zener breakdown range. Those designed to operate more than 5 operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range. Zeners are commercially available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 to 00. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 5 Breakdown Characteristics Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode s characteristic curve. As the reverse voltage ( R ) is increased, the reverse current ( R ) remains extremely small up to the knee of the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, Z. At this point, the breakdown effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (Z Z ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 6 Zener Equivalent Circuit Figure (b) represents the practical model of a zener diode, where the zener impedance (Z Z ) is included. Since the actual voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener current ( Z ) produces a small change in zener voltage ( Z ), as illustrated in Figure (c). Ex 3-13 A zener diode exhibits a certain change in Z for a certain change in Z on a portion of the linear characteristic curve between ZK and ZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the zener impedance? Z Z Z Z Z Z 50m Z 10Ω 5m Z Zener diode equivalent circuit models and the characteristic curve illustrating lustrating Z Z. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 7 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 8

22 Zener diode Data Sheet nformation As with most devices, zener diodes have given characteristics such as temperature coefficients and power ratings that have to be considered. The data sheet provides this information. Z : zener voltage ZT : zener test current Z ZT : zener mpedance ZK : zener knee current ZM : maximum zener current Partial data sheet for the 1N478-1N4764 1N4764 series 1 W zener diodes. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 9 Ex 3-3 A N4736 zener diode has a Z ZT of 3.5 Ω. The data sheet gives ZT 6.8 at ZT 37 ma and ZK 1 ma. What is the voltage across the zener terminals when the current is 50 ma? When the current is 5 ma? Z Z ZT + 13 ma Z Z Z ZT (13 ma)(3.5 Ω) +45.5m Z Z m 6.85 Z - 1 ma Z Z Z ZT (-1 ma)(3.5 Ω) - 4 m Z Z m 6.76 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 10 The temperature coefficient specifies the percent change in zener voltage for each o C change in temperature. For example, a 1 zener diode with a positive temperature coefficient of 0.01%/ o C will exhibit a 1. m increase in Z when the junction temperature increases one Celsius degree. Z Z TC T Where Z is the nominal zener voltage at 5 o C, TC is the temperature coefficient, and T is the change in temperature. Ex 3-33 An 8. zener diode (8. at 5 o C) has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.05 %/ o C. What is the zener voltage at 60 o C? The change in zener voltage is Δ Z Z TC ΔT (8. )(0.05 %/ o C)(60 o C 5 o C) (8. )(0.0005/ o C)(35 o C) 144 m Notice that 0.05%/ o C was converted to / o C. The zener voltage at 60 o Cis Z + Δ Z m 8.34 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 11 Zener Power Dissipating and Derating Zener diodes are specified to operate at a maximum power called the maximum dc power dissipation, P D(max). P D Z Z The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is typically specified for temperature at or below a certain value (50 o C, for example). The derating factor is expressed in mw/ o C. The maximum derated power can be determined with the following formula: P D(derated) P D(max) (mw/ o C) T Ex 3-43 A certain zener diode has a maximum power rating of 400 mw at 50 o C and a derating factor of 3. mw/ o C. Determine the maximum power the zener can dissipate at a temperature of 90 o C. P D(derated) P D(max) (mw/ o C) T 400 mw (3. mw/ o C)(90 o C 50 o C) 400 mw 18 mw 7 mw ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 1 3

23 Zener Diode Applications Zener Regulation with a arying nput oltage Ex 3-53 Determine the minimum and the maximum input voltages that can be regulated by the zener diode in Figure. From the data sheet in Figure, the following information for the N4733 is obtained: Z 5.1 at ZT 49 ma, ZK 1 ma, and Z Z 7 Ω at ZT. PD (max) 1W 196 ma ZM 5.1 Z OUT 5.1 Z 5.1 ( ZT ZK )Z Z 5.1 (48 ma)(7 Ω) N(min) ZK R + OUT (1 ma)(100 Ω) ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 13 OUT 5.1 Z ( ZM ZT )Z Z (147 ma)(7 Ω) N(min) ZM R + OUT (196 ma)(100 Ω) ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 14 Zener Regulation with a ariable Load n this simple illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener diode will adjust its impedance based on varying input voltages and loads (R L ) to be able to maintain its designated zener voltage. Zener current will increase or decrease directly with voltage input changes. The zener current will increase or decrease inversely with varying loads. Again, the zener has a finite range of operation. Ex 3-63 Determine the minimum and the maximum load currents for which the zener diode in Figure will maintain regulation. What is the minimum R L that can be used? Z 1, ZK 1 ma, and ZM 50 ma. Assume Z Z 0 Ω and Z remains a constant 1 over the range of current values, for simplicity. When L 0 A (R L ), Z is maximum N Z Z (max) T R ma 470 Ω Since Z(max) is less than ZM, 0 A is an acceptable minimum value for L because the zener can handle all of the 5.5 ma. L(min) 0 A The maximum value of L occurs when Z is minimum ( Z ZK ), L(max) T ZK 5.5 ma 1mA 4.5 ma ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 15 The minimum value of RL is R L(min) Z / L(max) 1 /4.5 ma 490 Ω ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 16 4

24 Ex 3-73 For the circuit in Figure: (a) Determine OUT at ZK and ZM. (b) Calculate the value of R that should be used. (c) Determine the minimum value of R L that can be used. (a) For ZK : OUT Z 15 Z Z ZT 15 ( ZT ZK )Z ZT 15 (16.75 ma)(14ω) Calculate the zener maximum current. The power dissipation is 1 W. PD 1W 15 (max) ZM Z ma (b) The value of R is calculated for the maximum zener current that occurs when there is no load as shown in Figure (a) N Z R 14Ω 66.7mA ZM (c) For the minimum load resistance (maximum load current), the zener current is minimum ( ZK 0.5 ma) as shown in Figure (b). N T R L T ZK OUT R L(min) L R 130 Ω (nearest larger standard value) mA 130Ω 71.0mA 0.5mA 70.75mA Ω 70.75mA OUT For ZM : OUT Z 15 + Z Z ZT 15 + ( ZM ZT )Z ZT 15 + (49.7 ma)(14ω) 15.7 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 17 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 18 Zener Limiting Zener diodes can used in ac applications to limit voltage swings to desired levels. Part (a) shows a zener used to limit the positive peak of a signal voltage to the selected voltage. When the zener is turned around, as in part (b), the negative peak is limited by zener action and the positive voltage is limited to Ex 3-83 Determine the output voltage for each zener limiting circuit in Figure. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 19 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 0 5

25 aractor Diodes A varactor diode is best explained as a variable capacitor. Think of the depletion region a variable dielectric. The diode is placed in reverse bias. The dielectric is adjusted by bias changes. aractor Diodes The varactor diode can be useful in filter circuits as the adjustable component. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 1 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd Optical Diodes The light-emitting diode (LED) emits photons as visible light. t s purpose is for indication and other intelligible displays. arious impurities are added during the doping process to vary the color output. Optical Diodes The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display of decimal digits. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 4 6

26 Optical Diodes The photodiode is used to vary current by the amount of light that strikes it. t is placed in the circuit in reverse bias. As with most diodes when in reverse bias, no current flows when in reverse bias, but when light strikes the exposed junction through a tiny window, reverse current increases proportional to light intensity. Other Diode Types Current regulator diodes keeps a constant current value over a specified range of forward voltages ranging from about 1.5 to 6. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 5 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 6 Other Diode Types The Schottky diode s significant characteristic is it s fast switching speed. This is useful for high frequencies and digital applications. t is not a typical diode in the fact that it does not have a p-n junction, instead it consists of a heavily doped n- material and metal bound together. Other Diode Types The pin diode is also used in mostly microwave frequency applications. t s variable forward series resistance characteristic is used for attenuation, modulation, and switching. n reverse bias exhibits a nearly constant capacitance. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 7 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 8 7

27 Other Diode Types The step-recovery diode is also used for fast switching applications. This is achieved by reduced doping at the junction. Other Diode Types The tunnel diode has negative resistance. t will actually conduct well with low forward bias. With further increases in bias it reaches the negative resistance range where current will actually go down. This is achieved by heavily doped p and n materials that creates a very thin depletion region. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 9 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 30 Other Diode Types The laser diode (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) produces a monochromatic (single color) light. Laser diodes in conjunction with photodiodes are used to retrieve data from compact discs. Troubleshooting Although precise power supplies typically use C type regulators, zener diodes can be used alone as a voltage regulator. As with all troubleshooting techniques we must know what is normal. A properly functioning zener will work to maintain the output voltage within certain limits despite changes in load. ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 31 ET1 Electronics Special Purpose Diodes Floyd 3 8

28 EET140/ET1 Electronics Bipolar Junction Transistors Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Professor Jang Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Objectives ntroduction to Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Basic Transistor Bias and Operation Parameters, Characteristics and Transistor Circuits Amplifier or Switch Key Words: BJT, Bias, Transistor, Amplifier, Switch ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd ntroduction A transistor is a device which can be used as either an amplifier or a switch. Let s first consider its operation in a more simple view as a current controlling device. Basic Transistor Operation Look at this one circuit as two separate circuits, the base-emitter(left side) circuit and the collector-emitter(right side) circuit. Note that the emitter leg serves as a conductor for both circuits.the amount of current flow in the base-emitter circuit controls the amount of current that flows in the collector circuit. Small changes in base-emitter current yields a large change in collector-current. ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 4 1

29 Transistor Structure The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn junctions, as shown in Figure (a). The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector. Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are shown in Figure (b) and (c). One type consists of two n regions separated by a p regions (npn), and other type consists of two p regions separated by an n region (pnp). Transistor Currents The directions of the currents in both npn and pnp transistors and their schematic symbol are shown in Figure (a) and (b). Notice that the arrow on the emitter of the transistor symbols points in the direction of conventional current. These diagrams show that the emitter current ( E ) is the sum of the collector current ( C ) and the base current ( B ), expressed as follows: E C + B ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 5 ET1 Electronics BJT Prof. Jang 6 Transistor Characteristics and Parameters Figure shows the proper bias arrangement for npn transistor for active operation as an amplifier.notice that the baseemitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the basecollector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. As previously discussed, base-emitter current changes yields large changes in collector-emitter current. The factor of this change is called beta(β). β C / B The ratio of the dc collector current ( C ) to the dc emitter current ( E ) is the alpha. α C / E ET1 Electronics BJTs 7 Ex 3-1 Determine β DC and E for a transistor where B 50 μa and C 3.65 ma. β DC C B 3.65mA 73 50µ A E C + B 3.65 ma + 50 μa 3.70 ma α DC C E 3.65mA mA ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 8

30 Transistor Characteristics and Parameters Analysis of this transistor circuit to predict the dc voltages and currents requires use of Ohm s law, Kirchhoff s voltage law and the beta for the transistor. Application of these laws begins with the base circuit to determine the amount of base current. Using Kichhoff s voltage law, subtract the.7 BE and the remaining voltage is dropped across R B. Determining the current for the base with this information is a matter of applying of Ohm s law. RB /R B B The collector current is determined by multiplying the base current by beta..7 BE will be used in ET1 Electronics BJTs most analysis examples. 9 Transistor Characteristics and Parameters What we ultimately determine by use of Kirchhoff s voltage law for series circuits is that in the base circuit BB is distributed across the base-emitter junction and R B in the base circuit. n the collector circuit we determine that CC is distributed proportionally across R C and the transistor( CE ). ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 10 Current and oltage Analysis There are three key dc voltages and three key dc currents to be considered. Note that these measurements are important for troubleshooting. B : dc base current E : dc emitter current C : dc collector current BE : dc voltage across base-emitter junction CB : dc voltage across collector-base junction CE : dc voltage from collector to emitter ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 11 Current and oltage Analysis-continued When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, BE 0.7 RB B R B : by Ohm s law B R B BB BE : substituting for RB B ( BB BE ) / R B : solving for B CE CC Rc : voltage at the collector with Rc C R C CE CC C R C respect to emitter The voltage across the reverse-biased collector-base junction CB CE BE where C β DC B ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 1 3

31 Ex 3- Determine B, C, BE, CE, and CB The transistor has a β DC 150. in the circuit of Figure. Collector Characteristic Curve When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, BE 0.7 B ( BB BE ) / R B (5 0.7 ) / 10 kω 430 µa CE CC C R C 10 (64.5 ma)(100 Ω) 3.55 CB CE BE C β DC B (150)(430 µa) 64.5 ma E C + B 64.5 ma µa 64.9 ma Collector characteristic curves gives a graphical illustration of the relationship of collector current and CE with specified amounts of base current. With greater increases of CC, CE continues to increase until it reaches breakdown, but the current remains about the same in the linear region from.7 to the breakdown voltage. ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 13 ET1 Electronics BJT Prof. Jang 14 Ex 3-3 Sketch an ideal family of collector curves for for the circuit in Figure for B 5 μa increment. Assume β DC 100 and that CE does not exceed breakdown. Transistor Characteristics and Parameters-Cutoff With no B the transistor is in the cutoff region and just as the name implies there is practically no current flow in the collector part of the circuit. With the transistor in a cutoff state the the full CC can be measured across the collector and emitter( CE ) C β DC B B C 5 μa 0.5 ma 10 μa 1.0 ma 15 μa 1.5 ma 0 μa.0 ma 5 μa.5 ma ET1 Electronics BJTs 15 ET1 Electronics BJT Prof. Jang 16 Cutoff: Collector leakage current ( CEO ) is extremely small and is usually neglected. Base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse-biased. 4

32 Transistor Characteristics and Parameters - Saturation Once this maximum is reached, the transistor is said to be in saturation. Note that saturation can be determined by application of Ohm s law. C(sat) CC /R C The measured voltage across this now seemingly shorted collector and emitter is 0. Transistor Characteristics and Parameters - DC Load Line The dc load line graphically illustrates C(sat) and Cutoff for a transistor. Saturation: As B increases due to increasing BB, C also increases and CE decreases due to the increased voltage drop across R C. When the transistor reaches saturation, C can increase no further regardless of further increase in B. Baseemitter and base-collector junctions are forward-biased. 17 DC load line on a family of collector characteristic curves illustrating the cutoff and saturation conditions. Floyd 18 Ex 3-4 Determine whether or not the transistors in Figure is in saturation. Assume CE(sat) 0.. First, determine C(sat) C( sat B CC CE( ) RC kω sat) 9.8 ma Now, see if B is large enough to produce C(sat). BB BE ma RB 10kΩ 10 kω β (50)(0.3mA) 11.5 ma C DC B ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 19 Transistor Characteristics and Parameters Maximum Transistor Ratings A transistor has limitations on its operation. The product of CE and C cannot be maximum at the same time. f CE is maximum, C can be calculated as PD (max) C CE Ex 4-5 A certain transistor is to be operated with CE 6. f its maximum power rating is 50 mw, what is the most collector current that it can handle? PD (max) 50mW C ma 6 CE ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 0 5

33 Ex 3-5 The transistor in Figure has the following maximum ratings: P D(max) 800 mw, CE(max) 15, and C(max) 100 ma. Determine the maximum value to which CC can be adjusted without exceeding a rating. Which rating would be exceeded first? First, find B so that you can determine C. BB BE B 195µ A R kω C β DC B B (100)(195µ A) 19.5mA The voltage drop across R C is. Rc C R C (19.5 ma)(1.0 kω) 19.5 Rc CC CE when CE CE(max) 15 CC(max) CE(max) + Rc P D CE(max) C (15)(19.5mA) 93 mw CE(max) will be exceeded first because the entire supply voltage, CC will be dropped across the transistor. Floyd 1 The Transistor as an Amplifier Amplification of a relatively small ac voltage can be had by placing the ac signal source in the base circuit. Recall that small changes in the base current circuit causes large changes in collector current circuit. The ac emitter current : e c b /r e The ac collector voltage : c c R c Since c e, the ac collector voltage : c e R c The ratio of c to b is the ac voltage gain : A v c / b Substituting e R c for c and e r e for b : A v c / b c R c / e r e The e terms cancel : A v R c /r e ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd Ex 3-6 Determine the voltage gain and the ac output voltage in Figure if r e 50 Ω. The Transistor as a Switch A transistor when used as a switch is simply being biased so that it is in cutoff (switched off) or saturation (switched on). Remember that the CE in cutoff is CC and 0 in saturation. The voltage gain : A v R c /r e 1.0 kω/50 Ω 0 The ac output voltage : A v b (0)(100 m) ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 4 6

34 Conditions in Cutoff & Saturation A transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased. All of the current are zero, and CE is equal to CC CE(cutoff) CC When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base current to produce a maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated. The formula for collector saturation current is C ( sat ) CC R C CE ( sat ) The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is C ( sat ) B (min) β DC ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 5 Ex 3-7 (a) For the transistor circuit in Figure, what is CE when N 0? (b) What minimum value of B is required to saturate this transistor if β DC is 00? Neglect CE(sat). (c) Calculate the maximum value of R B when N 5. (a) When N 0 CE CC 10 (b) Since CE(sat) is neglected, CC 10 C ( sat ) 10 ma RC 1.0 kω C ( sat ) 10 ma B (min) 50 µ A β DC 00 (c) When the transistor is on, BE 0.7. R B N BE Calculate the maximum value of R B R 4.3 B RB(max) 86 kω B(min) 50 µ A Floyd 6 Troubleshooting Opens in the external resistors or connections of the base or the circuit collector circuit would cause current to cease in the collector and the voltage measurements would indicate this. nternal opens within the transistor itself could also cause transistor operation to cease. Erroneous voltage measurements that are typically low are a result of point that is not solidly connected. This called a floating point. This is typically indicative of an open. More in-depth discussion of typical failures are discussed within the textbook. ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 7 Troubleshooting Testing a transistor can be viewed more simply if you view it as testing two diode junctions. Forward bias having low resistance and reverse bias having infinite resistance. ET1 Electronics BJTs Floyd 8 7

35 EET140/ET1 Electronics Field Effect Transistor (FET) Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Departmnet Professor Jang Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Outlines ntroduction to Field Effect Transistors (FET) JFET Parameters Biasing JFETs Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) Biasing MOSFET Key Words: FET, JFET, oltage Controlled Device, Pinch Off, Cut Off, MOSFET ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd FET - ntroduction BJTs (bipolar junction transistors) were covered in previous chapters. Now we will discuss the second major type of transistor, the FET (field-effect transistor). Recall that a BJT is a current-controlled device; that is, the base current controls the amount of collector current. A FET is different. t is a voltage-controlled device, where the voltage between two of the terminal (gate and source) controls the current through the device. The FET s major advantage over the BJT is high input resistance. Overall the purpose of the FET is the same as the BJT. The JFET The junction field effect transistor, like a BJT, controls current flow. The difference is the way this is accomplished. The JFET uses voltage to control the current flow. As you will recall the transistor uses current flow through the base-emitter junction to control current. JFETs can be used as an amplifier just like the BJT. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 3 GG voltage levels control current flow in the DD, R D circuit. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 4 1

36 The JFET Figure (a) shows the basic structure of an n-channel JFET (junction fieldeffect transistor). Wire leads are connected to each end of n-channel; the drain is at the upper end, and the source is at the lower end. Two p-type regions are diffused in the n-channel, and both p-type regions are connected to the gate lead. The JFET Basic Operation Figure shows dc bias voltages applied to an channel device. DD provides a drain-to-source voltage and supplies current from drain to source. The current is controlled by a field that is developed by the reverse biased gate-source junction (gate is connected to both sides). With more GG (reverse bias) the field (in white) grows larger. This field or resistance limits the amount of current flow through R D. The JFET is always operated with the gatesource pn junction reverse-biased. JFET schematic A representation of the basic structure of the two types of JFET. symbols. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 5 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 6 The JFET Basic Operation JFET Characteristics and Parameters Let s first take a look at the effects with a GS 0. D increases proportionally with increases of DD ( DS increases as DD is increased). This is called the ohmic region (point A to B) because DS and D are related by Ohm s law. As DS increases from point B to point C, the reverse-bias voltage from gate to drain ( GD ) produces a depletion region large enough to offset the increase in DS, thus keeping D relatively constant. The drain characteristic curve of a JFET for GS 0 showing pinch-off. Effects of GS on channel width, resistance, and drain current ( GG GS ). ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 7 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 8

37 JFET Characteristics and Parameters Pinch-Off oltage The point when D ceases to increase regardless of DD increases is called the pinch-off voltage (point B). This current is called maximum drain current ( DSS ). Breakdown (point C) is reached when too much voltage is applied. This of course undesirable, so JFETs operation is always well below this value. Because breakdown can result in irreversible damage to the device. 9 JFET action that produces the characteristic curve for GS 0. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 10 JFET Characteristics and Parameters GS Controls D JFET Characteristics and Parameters GS Controls D From this set of curves you can see with increased voltage applied to the gate the D is limited and of course the pinch-off voltage is lowered as well. Notice that D decreases as the magnitude of GS is increased to larger negative values because of the narrowing of the channel. Pinch-off occurs at a lower DS as GS is increased to more negative values. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 11 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 1 3

38 JFET Characteristics and Parameters Cutoff oltage We know that as GS is increased D will decrease. The value of GS that makes D approximately zero is the cutoff voltage ( GS(off) ). The field (in white) grows such that it allows practically no current to flow through. The JFET must be operated between GS 0 and GS(off). Comparison of Pinch-Off and Cutoff As you have seen, there is a difference between pinchoff and cutoff. There is also a connection. P is the value of DS at which the drain current becomes constant and is always measured at GS 0. However, pinch-off occurs for DS values less than P when GS is nonzero. So, although P is a constant, the minimum value of DS at which D becomes constant varies with GS. GS(off) and P are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. t is interesting to note that pinch-off voltage ( P ) and cutoff voltage ( GS(off) ) are both the same value only opposite polarity. 13 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 14 Ex. 7-1 For the JFET in Figure, GS(off) - 4 and DSS 1 ma. Determine the minimum value of DD required to put the device in the constant-current area of operation. Since GS(off) - 4, P 4. The minimum value of DS for the JFET to be in its constant-current area is DS P 4 n the constant-current area with GS 0, D DSS 1 ma The drop across the drain resistor is RD D R D (1 ma)(560ω) 6.7 Apply Kirchhoff s law around the drain circuit. DD DS + RD This is the value of DD to make DS P and put the device in the constant-current area. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 15 Ω JFET Characteristics and Parameters JFET Transfer Characteristic Curve The transfer characteristic curve illustrates the control GS has on D from cutoff ( GS(off) ) to pinch-off ( P ). A JFET transfer characteristic curve is nearly parabolic in shape and can be expressed as JFET transfer characteristic curve (n-channel). 1 GS D DSS GS ( off ) Example of the development of an n-channel JFET transfer characteristic curve (blue) from the JFET drain characteristic curves (green). 4

39 Ex. 7- A particular p-channel JFET has a GS(off) + 4. What is D when GS + 6? Ans. D remains 0. Ex. 7-3 The data sheet for a N5459 JFET indicates that typically DSS 9 ma and GS(off) - 8 (maximum). Using these values, determine the drain current for GS 0, -1, and 4. For GS 0, For GS - 1, For GS - 4, D DSS 9 ma D DSS 1 GS GS ( off ) ( 9mA) ( 9mA)( ) ( 9mA)( 0.766) 6.89mA 4 D 5 8 ( 9mA) 1 ( 9mA)( 1 0.5) ( 9mA)( 0.5). ma ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 17 JFET Biasing Just as we learned that the bi-polar junction transistor must be biased for proper operation, the JFET too must be biased for operation. Let s look at some of the methods for biasing JFETs. n most cases the ideal Q- point will be the middle of the transfer characteristic curve which is about half of the DSS. The purpose of biasing is to select the proper dc gate-to-source voltage to establish a desired value of drain current and, thus, a proper Q-point. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 18 JFET Biasing Self-Bias Self-bias is the most common type of biasing method for JFETs. Notice there is no voltage applied to the gate. The voltage to ground from here will always be G 0. However, the voltage from gate to source ( GS ) will be negative for n channel and positive for p channel keeping the junction reverse biased. This voltage can be determined by the formulas below. D S for all JFET circuits. Ex. 7-4 Find DS and GS in Figure. For the particular JFET in this circuit, the internal parameter values such as g m, GS(off), and DSS are such that a drain current ( D ) of approximately 5 ma is produced. Another JFET, even of the same type, may not produce the same results when connected in this circuit due the variations in parameter values. S D R S (5 ma)(68ω) 0.34 (n channel) GS G S - D R S (p channel) GS + D R S D DD D R D D DD D R D 15 (5 ma)(1.0kω) Therefore, DS D S Ω DS D S DD D (R D + R S ) where S D R S Since G 0, GS G S Ω 68Ω ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 19 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 0 5

40 JFET Biasing Setting the Q-point Q of a Self-Biased JFET Setting the Q-point requires us to determine a value of R S that will give us the desired D and GS.. The formula below shows the relationship. R S GS / D To be able to do that we must first determine the GS and D from the either the transfer characteristic curve or more practically from the formula below. The data sheet provides the DSS and GS(off). GS is the desired voltage to set the bias. D DSS (1 - GS / GS(off) ) ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 1 Ex. 7-5 Determine the value of R S required to self-bias an n-channel JFET that has the transfer characteristic curve shown in Figure at GS - 5. From the graph, D 6.5 ma when GS - 5. Calculate R S. R S GS 5 800Ω 6.5mA D ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd Ex. 7-6 Determine the value of R S required to self-bias an p-channel JFET with DSS 5 ma and GS(off) 15. GS is to be 5. D GS 5 DSS 1 (5mA) 1 GS ( off ) 15 (5mA)( ) 11.1 ma Now, determine R S. R S GS Ω 11.1mA D ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 3 S G GS JFET Biasing oltage-divider Bias oltage-divider bias can also be used to bias a JFET. R 1 and R are used to keep the gate-source junction in reverse bias. Operation is no different from self-bias. Determining D, GS for a JFET voltage-divider circuit with D given can be calculated with the formulas below. D R R G S R R1 + R S : Source voltage DD : Gate voltage : Gate-to-source voltage S D : Drain current S G GS D ET1 Electronics-FETs RS 4 6

41 Ex. 7-7 Determine D and GS for the JFET with voltage-divider bias in Figure, given that for this particular JFET the internal parameter values are such that D 7. DD D D 1. 5mA R 3.3kΩ 3.3kΩ D Ω Ω The MOSFET The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is the second category of FETs. The chief difference is that there no actual pn junction as the p and n materials are insulated from each other. MOSFETs are static sensitive devices and must be handled by appropriate means. There are depletion MOSFETs (D-MOSFET) and enhancement MOSFETs (E- MOSFET). Note the difference in construction. The E-MOSFET has no structural channel. Calculate the gate-to-source voltage as follows: S G D R S R R1 + R (1.5mA)(.kΩ) MΩ DD MΩ Ω Ω GS G S ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 5 Representation of the basic structure of D- MOSFETs. Representation of the basic E-MOSFET construction and operation (n-channel). The MOSFET Depletion MOSFET The D-MOSFET can be operated in either of two modes the depletion mode or enhancement mode and is sometimes called a depletion/enhancement MOSFET. Since the gate is insulated from the channel, either positive or a negative gate voltage can be applied. The n- channel MOSFET operates in the depletion mode when a negative gate-tosource voltage is applied and in the enhancement mode when a positive gate-to-source voltage is applied. These devices are generally operated in the depletion mode. The MOSFET Depletion MOSFET Depletion Mode With a negative gate voltage, the negative charges on the gate repel conduction electrons from the channel, leaving positive ions in their place. Thereby, the n channel is depleted of some of its electrons, thus decreasing the channel conductivity. The greater the negative voltage on the gate, the greater the depletion of n-channel electrons. At sufficiently negative gate-to-source voltage, GS(off), the channel is totally depleted and drain current is zero. Enhancement Mode With a positive gate voltage, more conduction electrons are attracted into the channel, thus increasing (enhancing) the channel conductivity. Source 7 D-MOSFET schematic symbols. ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 8 7

42 The MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET) The E-MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion mode. t differs in construction from the D-MOSFET in that it has no structural channel. Notice in Figure (a) that the substrate extends completely to the SiO layer. For n-channel device, a positive gate voltage above threshold value induces a channel by creating a thin layer of negative charges in the substrate region adjacent to the SiO layer, as shown in Figure (b). The MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET) The schematic symbols for the n- channel and p-channel E-MOSFET are shown in Figure below. The conventional enhancement MOSFETs have a long thin lateral channel as shown in structural view in Figure below. Representation of the basic E-MOSFET construction and operation (n-channel). Source n 9 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 30 MOSFET Characteristics and Parameters D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic As previously discussed, the D-MOSFET can operate with either positive or negative gate voltages. This is indicated on the general transfer characteristic curves in Figure for both n-channel and p- channel MOSFETs. The point on the curves where GS 0 corresponds to DSS. The point where D 0 corresponds to GS(off). As with the JFET, GS(off) - P. Ex. 7-8 For a certain D-MOSFET, DSS 10 ma and GS(off) - 8. (a) s this an n-channel or a p-channel? (b) Calculate D at GS - 3 (c) Calculate D at GS + 3. (a) The device has a negative GS(off); therefore, it is a n-channel MOSFET. ( b) GS 3 D DSS 1 (10 ma) ma GS ( off ) 8 D-MOSFET general transfer characteristic curves. Floyd + 3 ( c) D 9 8 ( 10 ma) ma ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 3 8

43 MOSFET Characteristics and Parameters E-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic The E-MOSFET for all practical purposes does not conduct until GS reaches the threshold voltage ( GS(th) ). D when it is when conducting can be determined by the formulas below. The constant K must first be determined. D(on) is a data sheet given value. K D(on) /( GS - GS(th) ) D K( GS - GS(th) ) An n-channel device requires a positive gate-to-source voltage, and a p-channel device requires a negative gate-to-source voltage. Ex. 7-9 The data sheet for a N7008 E-MOSFET gives D(o n) 500 ma (minimum) at GS 10 and GS(th) 1. Determine the drain current for GS 5. First, solve for K using Equation, K ( GS D( on) GS ( th) ) 500 ma ( 10 1 ) Next, using the value of K, calculate D for GS ma 6.17 ma / 81 D K ( GS GS ( th) ) (6.17 ma / )(5 1 ) ma E-MOSFET general transfer characteristic curves. 33 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 34 MOSFET Biasing D-MOSFET Bias The three ways to bias a MOSFET are zero-bias, voltage-divider bias, and drain-feedback bias. For D-MOSFET zero biasing as the name implies has no applied bias voltage to the gate. The input voltage swings it into depletion and enhancement mode. Since GS 0, D DSS as indicated. DS DD - DSS R D Ex Determine the drain-to-source voltage in the circuit of Figure. The MOSFET data sheet gives GS(off) - 8 and DSS 1 ma. Since D DSS 1 ma, the drain-to-source voltage is DS DD DSS R D 18 (1 ma)(560ω) 11.8 MΩ 560 Ω _ ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 35 ET1 Electronics-FETs Floyd 36 9

44 EET140/ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Professor Jang Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Outlines ntroduction to Frequency Response of an Amplifier Gain of an Amplifier in Decibels (db) Frequency Response of a BJT Amplifier Frequency Response of an FET Amplifier Frequency Response of a Multistage Amplifier Key Words: Frequency Response, Amplifier, Decibel, BJT, FET, Multistage ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd Amplifier Frequency Response - ntroduction Most amplifiers have a finite range of frequencies in which it will operate. We will discuss what determines the frequency response of an amplifier circuit and how it is measured. Basic Concepts When frequency is low enough, the coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be considered as shorts because their reactances are large enough to have significant effect. Also, when the frequency is high enough, the internal transistor capacitances can no longer be considered as opens because their reactances become small enough to have significant effect on the amplifier operation. We will discuss how the capacitor limits the passage of certain frequencies. This is called the frequency response of an amplifier. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 4 1

45 Basic Concepts Effect of Coupling Capacitors Coupling capacitors C 1 and C 3 limit the passage of very low frequencies. Emitter bypass C capacitor will have high reactance to low frequencies as well, limiting the gain. Also the capacitance causes a phase shift of the signal. 1 X C πfc ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 5 Basic Concepts Effect of Bypass Capacitors At lower frequencies, the reactance of the emitter bypass capacitor, C in previous Figure, becomes significant and emitter is no longer at ac ground. The capacitive reactance X in parallel with R C E creates an impedance that reduces the gain as shown in Figure. When the frequency is sufficiently high X C 0 Ω and the voltage gain of the CE amplifier is RC A v r' At lower frequencies, X C >> 0 Ω and the voltage gain is RC A v r ' + Z e ( ) Nonzero reactance of the bypass capacitor in e e parallel with R E creates an emitter impedance, (Z e ), which reduces the voltage gain. Floyd 6 Basic Concepts Effect of nternal Transistor Capacitances At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors become effective ac shorts and do not affect an amplifier s response. nternal transistor junction capacitances, however, do come into play, reducing an amplifier s gain and introducing phase shift as the signal frequency increases. Basic Concepts Effect of nternal Transistor Capacitances When the reactance of C be becomes small enough, a significant amount of the signal voltage is lost due to a voltage-divider effect of the signal source resistance and the reactance of C be as illustrated in Figure (a). When the resistance of C bc becomes small enough, a significant amount of output signal voltage is fed back out of phase with input (negative feedback), thus effectively reducing the voltage gain as shown in Figure (b). C be is the base-emitter junction capacitance and C bc is the base-collector junction capacitance. 7 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 8

46 Basic Concepts Miller s s Theorem At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors become effective ac shorts and do not affect an amplifier s response. nternal transistor junction capacitances, however, do come into play, reducing an amplifier s gain and introducing phase shift as the signal frequency increases. Basic Concepts Miller s s Theorem Millers theorem allows us to view the internal capacitances as external capacitors for better understanding of the effect they have on the frequency response. Miller s theorem states that C effectively appears as a capacitance from input and output to ground, as shown in Figure (b). A + 1 v C in(miller) C(A v + 1) C C out ( Miller ) Av ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 9 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 10 The Decibel The decibel is a common unit of measurement of voltage gain and frequency response. t is a logarithmic measurement of the ratio of one power to another or one voltage to another. The formulas below are used for calculation of decibels for power gain and voltage gain. A p(db) 10 log A p A v(db) 0 log A v ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 11 Table shows how doubling or having voltage gains translates into db values. Notice in the table that every time the voltage gain is doubled, the db value increases by 6 db, and every time the gain is halved, the db value decreases by 6 db. OLTAGE GAN (A v ) db (WTH RESPECT TO ZERO REFERENCE) 3 0 log(3) 30 db 16 0 log(16) 4 db 8 0 log(8) 18 db 4 0 log(4) 1 db 0 log() 6 db 1 0 log(1) 0 db log(0.707) - 3 db log(0.5) - 6 db log(0.5) - 1 db log(0.15) - 18 db log(0.065) - 4 db log(0.0315) - 30 db ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 1 3

47 Ex 10-1 Express each of the following ratios in db: Pout Pout (a) 50 (b) 100 (c) Av 10 Pin Pin out (d) A p 0.5 (e) in (a) A p(db) 10 log(50) 4 db(b) A p(db) 10 log(100) 0 db The Decibel The Critical Frequency The critical frequency also known as the cutoff frequency is the frequency at which the output power drops by 3 db, which represents one-half of it s midrange value. An output voltage drop of 3 db represents about a 70.7% drop from the midrange value. (c) A v(db) 0 log(10) 0 db (e) A v(db) 0 log(0.707) - 3 db (d) A p(db) 10 log(0.5) - 3 db Power is often measured in units of dbm. This is decibels with reference to 1mW of power. This means that 0 dbm 1mW. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 13 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 14 Ex 10- A certain amplifier has a midrange rms output voltage of 10. What is the rms output voltage for each of the following db gain reductions with a constant rms input voltage? (a) 3 db (b) 6 db (c) 1 db (d) 4 db Multiply the midrange output voltage by the voltage gain corresponding to the specified db value in Table. Low-Frequency Amplifier Response n looking at the low frequency ac equivalent circuit of a capacitor coupled amplifier we can see there are three RC circuits which will limit low frequency response. The input at the base, the output at the collector, and the emitter. A v( mid ) R r' c e (a) At 3 db, out 0.707(10 ) 7.07 (b) At 6 db, out 0.5(10 ) 5 (c) At 1 db, out 0.5(10 ).5 (d) At 4 db, out 0.065(10 ) 0.65 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 15 The low-frequency ac equivalent circuit of the amplifier in Figure (left) consists of three high-pass A capacitively coupled amplifier. RC circuits. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 16 4

48 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response The nput RC Circuit The input RC circuit for the BJT amplifier is formed by C 1 and the amplifier s input resistance and is shown in Figure. The input circuits effects on the signal at a given frequency can be more easily understood by looking at this simplified input circuit. The frequency at which the gain is down by 3dB is called the lower critical frequency (f c ). This frequency can be determined by the formula below. X 1 R C f C 1 1 f πr C in c π c 1 in 1 base R R in in + X C1 nput RC circuit formed by the input coupling capacitor and the amplifier s input resistance. in 1 f c π ( R + R s in ) C 1 17 Ex 10-3 For an input RC circuit in a certain amplifier, R in 1.0 kω and C 1 1 µf. Neglect the source resistance. (a) Determine the lower critical frequency. (b) What is the attenuation of the input RC circuit at the lower critical frequency? (c) f the midrange voltage gain of the amplifier is 100, what is the gain at the lower critical frequency? (a) 1 1 f 159Hz c πr C π (1.0kΩ)(1µ F) in (b) At f c, X c1 R in. Therefore 1 Attenuatio n base (c) A v A v(mid) 0.707(100) 70.7 in ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 18 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response oltage gain roll-off off at low frequency The decrease in voltage gain with frequency is called roll-off. Let s take a frequency that is one-tenth of the critical frequency (f 0.1f c ). Since X c1 R in at f c, then X c1 10 R in at 0.1f c because of the inverse relationship of X C1 and f c. The attenuation of the input RC circuit is, therefore, Attenuation R R base in in R + X R + (10R ) in in C1 in in R R in in R + 100R R ( ) in in in R 1 1 in 0.1 R The db attenuation is in 0log 0log(0.1) in base 0 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 19 db Low-Frequency Amplifier Response db/decade The decrease in voltage gain with frequency is called the roll-off. A ten times change in frequency is called a decade. The attenuation measured in db at each decade is is the db/decade. This typical db A v vs frequency illustrates the relationship. Sometimes rolloff is expressed in db/octave, which is a doubling or halving of a the frequency. db voltage gain versus frequency for the input RC circuit. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 0 5

49 Ex 10-4 The midrange voltage gain if a certain amplifier is 100. The input RC circuit has a lower critical frequency of 1 khz. Determine the actual voltage gain at f 1 khz, f 100 Hz, and f 10 Hz. When f 1 khz, the voltage gain is 3 db less than at midrange. At 3 db, the voltage gain is reduced by a factor of A v (0.707)(100) 70.7 When f 100 Hz 0.1f c, the voltage gain is 0 db less than at f c. The voltage gain at 0 db is one-tenth of that at the midrange frequencies. A v (0.1)(100) 10 When f 10 Hz 0.01fc, the voltage gain is 0 db less than at f 0.1f c or 40 db. The voltage gain at 40 db is one-tenth of that at 0 db or one- -hundredth that at the midrange frequencies. A v (0.01)(100) 1 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 1 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response Phase shift in the input RC circuit n addition to reducing the voltage gain, the input RC circuit also causes an increasing phase shift through an amplifier as the frequency decreases. X θ tan 1 C 1 Rin For midrange frequencies, X c1 0 Ω, so 1 0Ω 1 o θ tan tan (0) 0 R in At the critical frequency, X c1 R in, so 1 R in 1 o θ tan tan (1) 45 Rin A decade below the critical frequency, X c1 10R in, so 1 10R in 1 o θ tan tan (10) 84.3 Rin Phase angle versus frequency for the input RC circuit. nput RC circuit causes the base voltage to lead the input voltage below midrange by an amount equal to the circuit phase angle. Low-Frequency Amplifier Response The Output RC Circuit The output RC circuit affects the response similarly to the input RC circuit. The formula below is used to determine the cutoff frequency of the output circuit. f c 1/π(R C + R L )C 3 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The Bypass RC Circuit The bypass RC circuit is no different in it s effect on the gain at low frequencies. For midrange frequencies it is assumed that X C 0 Ω, effectively shorting the emitter to ground so that the amplifier gain is R c /r e. As frequency is reduced, X C increases. The impedance from emitter to ground increases, gain decreases. A v R c / (r e + R e ) Development of the equivalent low-frequency output RC circuit. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 3 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 4 6

50 Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The Bode Plot A plot of db voltage gain versus frequency on semilog paper (logarithmic horizontal axis scale and a linear vertical axis scale) is called a Bode plot. A generalized Bode plot for an RC circuit like that shown in Figure (a) appears in part (b) of the figure. High-Frequency Amplifier Response A high-frequency ac equivalent circuit for the BJT amplifier in Figure. Notice that the coupling and bypass capacitors are treated as effective shorts and do not appear in the equivalent circuit. The internal capacitances, C be and C bc, which are significant only at high frequencies, do appear in the diagram. An RC circuit and its low-frequency response. (Blue is ideal; red is actual.) 5 Capacitively coupled amplifier and its high-frequency equivalent circuit. ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 6 High-Frequency Amplifier Response Miller s s Theorem in High-Frequency Analysis Looking in from the signal source, the capacitance C bc appears in the Miller input capacitance from base to ground. C in(miller) C bc (A v + 1) C be simply appears as a capacitance to ac ground, as shown in Figure, in parallel with C in(miller). Looking in at collector, C bc appears in the Miller output capacitance from collector to ground. As shown in Figure. C output ( Miller ) C bc A + 1 v Av Low-Frequency Amplifier Response- The nput RC Circuit At high frequencies, the input circuit is as shown in Figure (a), where β ac r e is the input resistance. By combining C be and C in(miller) in parallel and repositioning shown in Figure (b). By thevenizing the circuit to left of capacitor, as indicated, the input RC circuit is reduced to the equivalent form shown in Figure (c). X Ctot R s R 1 R β ac r e Therefore, 1/(πf c C tot ) R s R 1 R β ac r e and f c 1/(π(Rs R1 R β ac r e )C tot ET1 Electronics High-frequency Amplifier Frequency equivalent Response circuit after applying Miller s theorem. Floyd 7 Where R s is the resistance of the signal source and C tot C be + C in(miller). ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 8 7

51 Ex Derive the input RC circuit for the BJT amplifier in Figure. Also determine the critical frequency. The transistor s data sheet provides the following: β ac 15, C be 0 pf, and C bc.4 pf. First, find r e as follows: R 4.7kΩ B CC R + R 6.7kΩ E E B R E E mA 470Ω 5m r' 11.1Ω e E ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 9 The total resistance of the input circuit is R in(tot) R s R 1 R β ac r e 600 Ω kω 4.7 kω 15(11.1 Ω) 378 Ω Next, in order to determine the capacitance, you must calculate the midrange gain of the amplifier so that you can apply Miller s theorem. R R // R 1.1kΩ c C L A 99 v ( mid ) r' r' 11.1Ω e e Apply Miller s theorem. C in(miller) C bc (A v(mid) + 1) (.4 pf)(100) 40 pf The total input capacitance is C in(miller) in parallel with C be. C in(tot) C in(miller) + C be 40 pf + 0 pf 60 pf 1 f c π ( R )( C ) in ( tot ) in( tot ) 1 π (378Ω)(60 pf) 1.6MHz 30 Total Amplifier Frequency Response Figure (b) shows a generalized ideal response curve (Bode plot) for the BJT amplifier shown in Figure (a). The three break points at the lower critical frequencies (f c1, f c, and f c3 ) are produced by the three low-frequency RC circuits formed by the coupling and bypass capacitors. The break points at the upper critical frequencies, f c4 and f c5, are produced by the two highfrequency RC circuit formed by the transistor s internal capacitances. Total Amplifier Frequency Response - Bandwidth An amplifier normally operates with signal frequencies between f cl and f cu. The range (band) of frequencies lying between f cl and f cu is defined as the bandwidth of the amplifier, as illustrated in Figure. The amplifier s bandwidth is expressed in units of hertz as BW f cu f cl ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 31 ET1 Electronics Amplifier Frequency Response Floyd 3 8

52 EET140/ET1 Electronics Operational Amplifier Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology Department Acknowledgement want to express my gratitude to Prentice Hall giving me the permission to use instructor s material for developing this module. would like to thank the Department of Electrical and Telecommunications Engineering Technology of NYCCT for giving me support to commence and complete this module. hope this module is helpful to enhance our students academic performance. Sunghoon Jang Professor Jang Prepared by textbook based on Electronics Devices by Floyd, Prentice Hall, 7 th edition. Outlines ntroduction to operational amplifier (OP-Amp) The Parameters and Characteristics of an Op-Amp. Basic Op-Amp Operation ntroduction To Operational Amplifiers The operational amplifier or op-amp is a circuit of components integrated into one chip. We will study the opamp as a singular device. A typical op-amp is powered by two dc voltages and has an inverting(-) and a noninverting input (+) and an output. Note that for simplicity the power terminals are not shown but understood to exist. Three Op-Amp Configurations and Closedloop Frequency Response of an Op-Amp. Key Words: Operational Amplifier, CMRR, nverting, Noninverting, Open Loop Gain ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 3 1

53 ntroduction To Op-Amps The deal & Practical Op-Amp While an ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth. Also, it has infinite input impedance (open) and zero output impedance. We know this is impossible. However, Practical op-amps do have very high voltage gain, very high input impedance, very low output impedance, and wide bandwidth. ntroduction To Op-Amps nternal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuit: a differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as shown in Figure. A differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp. t has two inputs and provides amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs. The voltage amplifier provides additional op-amp gain. Some op-amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage. ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 4 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 5 Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters nput Signal Modes Signal-Ended nput When an op-amp is operated in the single-ended mode, one input is grounded and signal voltage is applied only to the other input as shown in Figure. n the case where the signal voltage is applied to the inverting input as in part (a), an inverted, amplified signal voltage appears at the output. n the case where the signal voltage is applied to the noninverting input with the inverting input grounded, as in part (b), a noninverted, amplified signal voltage appears at the output. Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters nput Signal Modes - Differential nput n the differential mode, two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are applied to the inputs, as shown in Figure. This type of operation is also referred to as double-ended. The amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the output. ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 6 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 7

54 Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters nput Signal Modes - Common-Mode nput n the common mode, two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the two inputs, as shown in Figure. When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage. This action is called common-mode rejection. Ex. 1-1 dentify the type of input mode for each op-amp in Figure. (a) Single-ended input (b) Differential input (c) Common-mode ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 8 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 9 Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters Common-Mode Rejection Ratio The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the measure for how well it rejects an unwanted the signal. t is the ratio of open loop gain (A ol ) to common-mode gain (A cm ). The open loop gain is a data sheet value. Aol CMRR A The CMRR is often expressed in decibel ( db) as A ol CMRR 0log Acm cm ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 10 Ex. 1- A certain op-amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 100,000 and a commonmode gain of 0.. Determine the CMRR and express it in decibel. A ol 100,000, and A cm 0.. Therefore, A CMRR A cm Expressed in decibels, ol 100, , CMRR 0 log(500,000) 114dB Ex. 1-3 An op-amp data sheet specifies a CMRR of 300,000 and an A ol of 90,000. What is the common-mode gain? A cm Aol CMRR 90, , ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 11 3

55 Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters Op-amps tend to produce a small dc voltage called output error voltage ( OUT(error) ). The data sheet provides the value of dc differential voltage needed to force the output to exactly zero volts. This is called the input offset voltage ( OS ). This can change with temperature and the input offset drift is a parameter given on the data sheet. Op-Amp nput Modes and Parameters There are other input parameters to be considered for opamp operation. The input bias current is the dc current required to properly operate the first stage within the opamp. The input impedance is another. Also, the input offset current which can become a problem if both dc input currents are not the same. Output impedance and slew rate, which is the response time of the output with a given pulse input are two other parameters. Op-amp low frequency response is all the way down to dc. The high frequency response is limited by the internal capacitances within the op-amp stages. ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 1 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 13 Ex. 1-4 The output voltage of a certain op-amp appears as shown in Figure in response to a step input. Determine the slew rate. Negative Feedback Negative feedback is feeding part of the output back to the input to limit the overall gain. This is used to make the gain more realistic so that the op-amp is not driven into saturation. Remember regardless of gain there are limitations of the amount of voltage that an amplifier can produce. The output goes from the lower to the upper limit in 1 µs. Since this response is not ideal, the limits are taken at the 90% points, as indicated. So, the upper limit is +9 and the lower limit is -9. The slew rate is out + 9 ( 9 ) Slew rate 18 / µ s t 1µ s ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 14 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 15 4

56 Ex. 1-5 dentify each of the op-amp configurations in Figure. (a) oltage-follower (b) Non-inverting (c) nverting ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 16 Op-Amps With Negative Feedback noninverting Amplifier The closed-loop voltage gain (A cl ) is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback. The gain can be controlled by external component values. Closed loop gain for a noninverting amplifier can be determined by the formula below. deal Op-Amp 1 in 1 1 out + 0 Ri R f R + R in f i ( ) 0 in out in out 1 ( R + R ) R i f Ri + R f in R i out R f (1 + ) R ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 17 i in Ex. 1-6 Determine the gain of the amplifier in Figure. The open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp is 100,000. Op-Amps With Negative Feedback oltage-follower The voltage-follower amplifier configuration has all of the output signal fed back to the inverting input. The voltage gain is 1. This makes it useful as a buffer amp since it has a high input impedance and low output impedance. This is a noninverting op-amp configuration. Therefore, the closed-loop voltage gain is R f 100 kω Acl( N ) R 4.7 kω i ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 18 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 19 5

57 Op-Amps With Negative Feedback nverting Amplifier Ex. 1-7 Given the op-amp configuration in Figure, determine the value of R f required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to the inverting input for gain control. The gain for the inverting op-amp can be determined by the formula below. deal Op-Amp R R 0 Knowing that R i. kω and the absolute value of the closed-loop gain is A cl() 100, calculate R f as follows: in f out i 1 in 1 out + f 0 cl ( ) Ri R R f f out in R Ri i ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd R A R (100)(.kΩ) 0kΩ 0 f cl ( ) i A R 1 Ex. 1-8 Determine the closed-loop gain of each amplifier in Figure. Ex. 1-9 f a signal voltage of 10 m rms is applied to each amplifier in Figure, what are the output voltages and what is there phase relationship with inputs?. (a) 11 (b) 101 (c) 47.8 (d) 3 (a) out in 10 m, in phase (b) out A cl in 10 m, 180º out of phase (c) out 33 m, in phase (d) out 100 m, 180º out of phase ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 3 6

58 Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp mpedances - mpedances of a Noninverting Amplifier nput mpedance However high the input impedance of an op-amp circuit is, impedance still exists. For a non-inverting amplifier it can be determined by the formulas below. Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp mpedances - mpedances of a Noninverting Amplifier Output mpedance The output impedance is understood to be low for an op-amp. ts exact value can be determined by the formula below. Z out(n) Z out /(1 + A ol B) B(feedback attenuation) 1/A cl R i /(R i + R f ) Z in(n) (1 + A ol B)Z in ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 4 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 5 Ex (a) Determine the input and output impedances of the amplifier in Figure. The op-amp data sheet gives Z in MΩ, Z out 75 Ω, and A ol 00,000. (b) Find the closed-loop voltage gain. (a) The attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit is Ri 10kΩ B R + R 30kΩ (b) Z Z in( N i f ) (1 + AolB) Zin [1 + (00,000)(0.0435)](MΩ) ( )(MΩ) 17.4GΩ Z 75Ω out 8. Ω 1+ A B m 6 out ( N ) ol 1 1 B A cl ( N ) 3.0 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 6 Ex The same op-amp in Example 6-10 is used in a voltagefollower configuration. Determine the input and output impedance. Since B 1, Zin( F ) (1 + Aol ) Zin (1 + 00,000)( MΩ) 400 GΩ Z out( F ) Zout 75Ω 375 Ω 1+ A 1+ 00,000 µ ol Notice that Z in(f) is much greater than Z in(n), and Z out(f) is much less than Z out(n) from Example ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 7 7

59 Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp mpedances mpedances of an nverting Amplifier The input impedance for an inverting amplifier is approximately equal to the input resistor (R i ). The output impedance is very low and in most cases any impedance load can be connected to it with no problem. The exact amount can be determined by the formulas below. B(feedback attenuation) R i /(R i + R f ) Z in() R i Z out() Z out / (1 + A ol B) Ex. 1-1 Find the value of the input and output impedances in Figure. Also, determine the closed-loop voltage gain. The op-amp has the following parameters: A ol 50,000; Z in 4 MΩ; and Z out 50 Ω. Zin( ) Ri 1. 0 kω The feedback attenuation, B, is Ri 1.0 kω B 0.01 Ri + R f 101kΩ Then Zout 50Ω Z Ω + A B + m out( ) (50,000)(0.01) The closed-loop voltage gain is R ol 100 kω 1.0 kω f cl( ) Ri A 100 (zero for all practical purposes) ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 8 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 9 3 db Open-Loop Response The open-loop gain of an op-amp is determined by the internal design and it very high. The high frequency cutoff frequency of an open-loop op-amp is about 10 Hz. Open-Loop Frequency Response The internal RC circuit of an op-amp limits the gain at frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The gain of an open-loop op-amp can be determined at any frequency by the formula below. A ol A ol( mid ) 1+ f / fc deal plot of open-loop voltage gain versus frequency for ET1 Electronics OP-Amps a typical op-amp. The frequency scale Floydis logarithmic. 30 Op-amp represented by a gain element and an internal RC circuit. ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 31 8

60 Ex 1 13 Determine A ol for the following values of f. Assume f c(ol) 100 Hz and A ol(mid) 100,000. (a) f 0 Hz (b) f 10 Hz (c) f 100 Hz (d) f 1000 Hz ( a) ( b) ( c) ( d) A ol A ol A ol A ol A 1+ f ol( mid ) / f 100, (0.1) 100, (1) c( cl) 100, (10) 100, , ,503 70, ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 3 Open-Loop Response Phase Shift Of course as with any RC circuit phase shift begins to occur at higher frequencies. Remember we are viewing internal characteristics as external components. Phase Shift (θ ) tan ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 33 1 f f c Ex 1 14 Calculate the phase shift for an RC lag circuit for each of the following frequencies, and then the curve of phase shift versus frequency. Assume f c 100 Hz (a) f 1 Hz (b) f 10 Hz (c) f 100 Hz (d) f 1000 Hz (e) f 10,000 Hz a 1 f 1 1Hz ( ) θ tan tan 0. f c 100 Hz 573 b 1 10 Hz ( ) θ tan Hz Hz ( c ) θ tan Hz d Hz o ( ) θ tan Hz 3 o o o Closed-Loop Response Op-amps are normally used in a closed loop configuration with negative feedback. While the gain reduced the bandwidth is increased. The bandwidth (BW) of a closed-loop op-amp can be determined by the formula below. Remember B is the feedback attenuation. BW cl BW ol (1 + BA ol(mid) ) θ tan tot tan 1 f f 1 c f f c1 tan 1 f f c3 1 10,000 Hz ( e) θ tan Hz o ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 34 ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 35 9

61 Ex 1 15 A certain op-amp has three internal amplifier stages with the following gains and critical frequencies: Stage 1: A v1 40 db, f c1 khz Stage : A v 3 db, f c 40 khz Stage 3: A v3 0 db, f c3 150 khz Determine the open-loop midrange gain in decibels and the total phase lag when f f c1 A ol(mid) A v1 + A v + A v3 40 db + 3 db + 0 db 9 db θ tan tot o f f c1 tan 1 f f c tan tan 1 (1) tan tan o o o ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 36 1 f f c3 The gainbandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at which the opamp s open-loop gain is 0dB (unitygain bandwidth). Closed-Loop Response BW cl BW ol (1 +BA ol(mid) ) Closed-loop gain compared to open-loop gain. ET1 Electronics OP-Amps Floyd 37 10