(DNA) 2 = = RNA - DNA
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1 Genetics and Cellular Function Genes and nucleic acids Protein synthesis and secretion DNA replication and the cell cycle Chromosomes and heredity Organization of the Chromatin Threadlike chromatin = chromosomes = 46 DNA molecules and associated proteins Nondividing state = DNA molecules compacted coiled around core particle (histone protein) zig-zagged, looped and coiled onto itself Preparing to divide DNA copies itself to form 2 parallel sister chromatids Nucleotide Structure DNA = polymer of nucleotides Each nucleotide consist of phosphate group sugar ribose (RNA) deoxyribose (DNA) nitrogenous base in this picture = adenine Nitrogenous Bases Purines - double ring guanine adenine Pyrimidines - single ring uracil - RNA only thymine - DNA only cytosine both DNA bases =CTAG RNA bases = CUAG
2 Complementary Base Pairing Nitrogenous bases united by hydrogen bonds DNA base pairings A-T and C-G Law of complementary base pairing one strand determines base sequence of other DNA Function Code for protein synthesis Gene - sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for one protein Genome - all the genes of one person humans have estimated 30-35,000 genes other 98% of DNA noncoding junk or regulatory RNA: Structure and Function RNA smaller than DNA (fewer bases) transfer RNA (trna) bases messenger RNA (mrna) over 10,000 bases DNA has over a billion base pairs Only one nucleotide chain (not a helix) ribose replaces deoxyribose as the sugar uracil replaces thymine as a nitrogenous base Essential function interpret DNA code direct protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Genetic Control of Cell Action through Protein Synthesis DNA directs the synthesis of all cell proteins including enzymes that direct the synthesis of nonproteins Different cells synthesize different proteins dependent upon differing gene activation
3 Preview of Protein Synthesis Transcription messenger RNA (mrna) is formed next to an activated gene mrna migrates to cytoplasm Translation mrna code is read by ribosomal RNA as amino acids are assembled into a protein molecule transfer RNA delivers the amino acids to the ribosome Genetic Code System that enables the 4 nucleotides (A,T,G,C) to code for the 20 amino acids Base triplet: found on DNA molecule (ex. TAC) nucleotides that stand for 1 amino acid Codon: mirror-image sequence of nucleotides found in mrna (ex AUG) 64 possible codons (4 3 ) often 2-3 codons represent the same amino acid start codon = AUG 3 stop codons = UAG, UGA, UAA Transcription Copying instructions from DNA to RNA RNA polymerase binds to DNA at site selected by chemical messengers from cytoplasm opens DNA helix and transcribes bases from 1 strand of DNA into pre-mrna if C on DNA, G is added to mrna if A on DNA, U is added to mrna, etc. rewinds DNA helix Pre-mRNA is unfinished nonsense (introns) removed by enzymes sense (exons) reconnected and exit nucleus
4 Alternative Splicing of mrna One gene can code for more than one protein Exons can be spliced together into a variety of different mrnas. Translation of mrna mrna begins with leader sequence binding site for ribosome Start codon AUG Steps in Translation of mrna Growth of polypeptide chain next codon read, next trna attached, amino acids joined, first trna released, process repeats and repeats Stop codon reached and process halted polypeptide released and ribosome dissociates into 2 subunits Transfer RNA (trna) Activation by ATP binds specific amino acid and provides necessary energy to join amino acid to growing protein molecule Anticodon binds to complementary codon of mrna Polyribosomes and Signal Peptides Polyribosome cluster of ribosomes reading mrna at one time horizontal filament - mrna large granules - ribosomes beadlike chains projecting out - newly formed proteins takes 20 seconds to assemble protein of 400 amino acids cell may produce > 150,000 proteins/second Signal peptide = beginning of chain of amino acids determines protein s destination within cell
5 Chaperones and Protein Structure Newly forming protein molecules must coil or fold into proper 2 nd and tertiary molecular structure Chaperone proteins prevent premature folding, assist in proper folding and escort protein to final destination Stress or heat-shock proteins produced in response to heat or stress help damaged protein fold back into correct functional shapes Errors and Mutations Error rates of DNA polymerase in bacteria, 3 errors per 100,000 bases copied Proofreading and error correction a small polymerase proofreads each new DNA strand and makes corrections results in only 1 error per 1,000,000,000 bases copied Mutations - changes in DNA structure due to replication errors or environmental factors some cause no effect, some kill cell, turn it cancerous or cause genetic defects in future generations
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