Hans Kuzmany. Solid-State Spectroscopy. An Introduction. Second Edition. 4) Springer

Transcription

1 Hans Kuzmany Solid-State Spectroscopy An Introduction Second Edition 4) Springer

2 Contents 1 Introduction Electromagnetic Radiation Electromagnetic Waves and Maxwell's Theory Radiation from Accelerated Charges The Hertzian Dipole Emission from Arbitrarily Accelerated Charges Fourier Transforms Fourier Theorem Examples of Fourier Transforms Radiation with a Finite-Frequency Spectrum Damped Harmonie Oscillator Frequency Spectrum for Electromagnetic Waves with a Finite Radiation Time Frequency Spectrum and Power Spectrum Coherence and Correlation Periodic and Non-Periodic Electromagnetic Fields Coherent and Non-Coherent Superposition Temporary Coherence and Correlation The Wiener Khintchin Theorem Problems Light Sources with General Application Black Body Radiation and Gas-Discharge Lamps Spectral Lamps, and Shape of Spectral Lines Low-Pressure Spectral Lamps Shape of Spectral Lines Synchrotron Radiation Synchrotron Light Sources Generation and Properties of Synchrotron Radiation Special Synchrotron Facilities XI

3 XII Contents Synchrotron Facilities World Wide The Fourth Synchrotron Generation Lasers as Radiation Sources Generation and Properties of Laser Radiation Continuous-Wave Lasers Semiconductor Lasers Pulsed Lasers Tunable Lasers Free-Electron Lasers New Developments Problems Spectral Analysis of Light Optical Elements Optical Filters Polarizers and Phase Plates Glass Fibers and Light Pipes Monochromators and Spectrometers Characteristics of Monochromators The Prism Monochromator The Grating Monochromator Interferometers Multiple-Beam Interference for a Parallel Plate The Fabry Perot Interferometer The Multipass Fabry Perot Interferometer Problems Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation Signal and Noise Photographic Films Photomultipliers Photoelectric Detectors Fundamentals of Photoelectric Detectors Photoconduction Detectors Photodiodes Detector Arrays and Imagers Problems The Dielectric Response Functions Optical Constants, and Kramers Kronig Relations Optical Constants Reflection and Transmission Kramers Kronig Dispersion Relations Physical Origin of Contributions to the Dielectric Function Model Dielectric Functions

4 Contents XIII Dielectric Function for Harmonic Oscillators The Dielectric Function for Free Carriers Dielectric Functions for Combined Free Carrier and Oscillator Response Oscillator Strength and Sum Rules Experimental Determination of Dielectric Functions (Ellipsometry) Problems Spectroscopy in the Visible and Near-Visible Spectral Range Quantum-Mechanical Description of Optical Absorption Absorption from Extended States in Semiconductors The Physical Background and the Shape of the Absorption in Semiconductors Direct and Allowed Transitions at the Absorption Edge Forbidden Transitions and Phonon-Assisted Transitions Absorption from Higher Transitions Absorption from Localized States Absorption of Extended and Localized Excitons Absorption by Defects Theoretical Description of Absorption by Localized States Crystal Field and Ligand Field Induced Absorption Luminescence Luminescence from Semiconductors Luminescence from Point Defects in Insulators Problems Symmetry and Selection Rules Symmetry of Molecules and Crystals Formal Definition and Description of Symmetry The Mathematical Description of Symmetry Operations Transformation Behavior of Physical Properties Representation of Groups Classification of Vibrations Infinitely Extended Ensembles and Space Groups Quantum-Mechanical Selection Rules Problems Light Scattering Spectroscopy Instrumentation and Setup for Light Scattering Experiments Raman Spectroscopy Fundamentals of Raman Scattering

5 XIV Contents Classical Determination of Scattering Intensity and Raman Tensor Longitudinal and Transversal Optical Modes Polaritons A Simple Quantum-Mechanical Theory of Raman Scattering Temperature Dependence of Raman Scattering Raman Scattering from Disordered Structures Resonance Raman Scattering and Electronic Raman Scattering Raman Scattering in the Time Domain Brillouin Scattering and Rayleigh Scattering Fundamentals of Brillouin Scattering Experimental Results of Brillouin Scattering Rayleigh Scattering Problems Infrared Spectroscopy Radiation Sources, Optical Components, and Detectors Dispersive Infrared Spectroscopy Fourier Spectroscopy Basic Principles of Fourier Spectroscopy Operating Conditions for Fourier Spectrometers Fourier-Transform Raman Spectroscopy Intensities for Infrared Absorption Absorption for Electronic Transitions Absorption for Vibronic Transitions Examples from Solid-State Spectroscopy Investigations an Molecules and Polycrystalline Material Infrared Absorption and Reflection from Crystals Attenuated Total Reflection Applications in Semiconductor Physics Properties of Metals in the Infrared Problems Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Magnetic Moments of Atoms and Nuclei Orientation of Magnetic Moments in a Field, and Zeeman Splitting Magnetic Moments in Solids Magnetic Moments in a Magnetic Field Motion of Magnetic Moments and Bloch Equations The Larmor Frequency Basic Concepts of Spin Resonance

6 Contents XV Induction into a Sensor Coil Free Induction Decay Tuning the Resonance Susceptibility and Absorption of Power in CW Experiments Resonance Absorption The Resonance Excitation as an Absorption Process Relaxation Times and Linewidths for Magnetic Resonance Dipole-Dipole Interaction and Transversal Relaxation Time T Shape of Resonance Lines The Spin-Lattice Relaxation T l The Effective Spin Hamiltonian Electron Spin Resonance Zeeman Splitting and Crystal Field Effects Hyperfine Interaction Spin-Orbit Interaction Free Carrier Spin Relaxation Nuclear Magnetic Resonance The Chemical Shift Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Magic-Angle Spinning NMR Cross Polarization Electron-Nuclear Double Resonance Knight Shift Two-Dimensional NMR and NMR Tomography Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance Problems Ultraviolet and X-Ray Spectroscopy Instrumentation for Ultraviolet and X-Ray Spectroscopy X-Ray Sources and X-Ray Optics X-Ray and Electron Spectrometers X-Ray and Electron Detectors X-Ray Absorption and X-Ray Fluorescence X-Ray and UV Electron Spectroscopy Auger Spectroscopy Basic Principles of Photoelectron Spectroscopy X-Ray Photoemission Ultraviolet Photoemission Angle-Resolved Photoemission (ARPES) Basic Concepts of Angle-Resolved Photoemission Band Structure of 3D Crystals Direct Recording for E(k) Inverse Photoemission

7 XVI Contents 12.6 X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure Inelastic Scattering of X-Rays Problems Spectroscopy with -y Rays Mößbauer Spectroscopy Fundamentals of Mößbauer Spectroscopy Experimental Set Up and Instrumentation for Mößbauer Spectroscopy Results of Mößbauer Spectroscopy Mößbauer Spectroscopy in the Time Domain Perturbed Angular Correlation Basic Description of the Perturbed Angular Correlation Experimental Results from Perturbed Angular Correlation Problems Generalized Form of Response Functions The Momentum Dependence of the Dielectric Function Excitations of the Electronic System Plasmons and Plasmon Dispersion Single-Particle Excitation Combination of the Dielectric Response Generalized Response Functions and Correlation Functions in Linear Response Linear Response Theory and Kramers Kronig Relations The General Response Function Dynamic Form Factor and Correlation Functions The Generalized Dielectric Function for Charged Particles Problems Spectroscopy with Electrons, Positrons and Muons Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) Electron Energy Loss Spectrometers and Detectors Applications of Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy Tunneling Spectroscopy (TS) The Tunneling Effect in Solids The Tunneling Diode Tunneling Spectroscopy in Superconductors Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy Positrons Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS) Positron Sources and Spectrometer

8 Contents XVII Experimental Results from Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy Muon Spin Rotation (psr) Muons and Muon Spin Rotation Influence of Internal Fields Experimental Results Problems Spectroscopy of Mesoscopic and Nanoscopic Solids Ciassical Nanoscopic Systems Optical Properties of Small Metallic Particles in the Ciassical Limit Coulomb Oscillations and Coulomb Diamonds for Ciassical and for Quantized Nanostructures Spectroscopy in Systems with Size Quantization Size Quantization Spectroscopy in Quasi-Metallic Quantum Dots Spectroscopy in Semiconducting Quantum Dots Landau Levels and Quantum Hall Effect Problems Neutron Scattering Neutrons and Neutron Sources Neutrons for Scattering Experiments Thermal Neutron Sources Cold and Hot Neutron Sources Neutron Spectrometer and Detectors Neutron Spectrometer Neutron Detectors The Process of Neutron Scattering The Scattering Cross Section Coherent and Incoherent Scattering in the Born Approximation Inelastic Neutron Scattering and Scattering Geometry Response Function and Correlation Function for Inelastic Neutron Scattering Results from Neutron Scattering Problems Spectroscopy with Atoms and Ions Instrumentation for Atom and Ion Spectroscopy Ion Beam Sources Accelerators and Beam Handling Analyzer and Detectors Energy Loss and Penetration of Heavy Particles in Solids

9 XVIII Contents 18.3 Backscattering Spectroscopy Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy Elastic Recoil Detection Spectroscopy Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy Problems A To Chapter 1, Introduction B To Chapter 2, Electromagnetic Radiation B.1 Photometrie Radiation Equivalent B.2 The Maxwell Equations B.3 Potentials for the Electromagnetic Field B.4 Expansion of the Potential in Multipole Moments B.5 Time-Retarded Potentials B.6 Radiation from an Arbitrarily Accelerated Charge B.7 Fourier Transformations B.8 The ö Function B.8.1 Representations of the (5 function B.8.2 Some Properties of the S Function C To Chapter 3, Light Sources with General Application C.1 Moments of Spectral Lines C.2 Convolution of Spectral Lines C.3 Fano Lines C.4 Electron Motion in Special Synchrotron Facilities: Wiggler and Undulator C.5 Stimulated Emission of Laser Radiation D To Chapter 4, Spectral Analysis of Light D.1 Multiple Beam Interference for a Plane-Parallel Plate E To Chapter 6, The Dielectric Function E.1 Reflection and Transmission at an Interface for Arbitrary Incidence (Fresnel Equations) E.2 Reflection and Transmission Through Plane and Parallel Plates E.3 Kramers-Kronig Transformations F To Chapter 7, Spectroscopy in the Visible and Near-Visible Spectral Range F.1 Matrix Elements and First-Order Perturbation Theory F.2 Transitions Induced by Electromagnetic Radiation F.3 Matrix Elements in Dipole Representation F.4 Quantum Mechanics of the Harmonic Oscillator F.5 Diodes for Blue Luminescence

10 Contents XIX G To Chapter 8, Symmetry and Selection Rules G.1 Character Tables of Point Groups G.2 Some More Elements of Representation Theory G.3 Representation of Groups by Displacement Coordinates G.4 Vibrational Species of Rhombohedric CaCO H To Chapter 9, Light Scattering Spectroscopy H.1 Raman Tensors for the 32 Point Groups H.2 Averaging of Raman-Tensor Components I To Chapter 10, Infrared Spectroscopy I.1 Line-Shape Function from the Fluctuation-Dissipation Theorem J To Chapter 11, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy J.1 g-factor for the Free Electron J.2 Transformation of Velocities Between Laboratory System and Rotating System J.3 Exchange Interaction J.4 Line Shape for Powder Spectra in Magnetic Resonance J.5 Pauli Spin Matrices J.6 Spin-Orbit Interaction K To Chapter 13, Spectroscopy with -y Rays K.1 Oscillator Models for Recoil-Free Emission of 7 Radiation L To Chapter 14, Generalized Dielectric Function L.1 The Kramers-Kronig Relations L.2 Evaluation of Expectation Value for Particle Density L.3 The Fluctuation-Dissipation Theorem L.4 The Generalized Dielectric Function for Charged Particles L.5 Random Phase Approximation M To Chapter 16, Spectroscopy of Mesoscopic and Nanoscopic Solids M.1 Appendix: Basic Concepts of Mie Theory M.2 Appendix: Field Effect Transistors M.3 Appendix: Quantum Wells, Quantum Wires, and Dots M.4 Appendix: Size Quantization M.4.1 Size Quantization in Rectangular Boxes M.4.2 Size Quantization for Spherical Boxes N To Chapter 17, Neutron Scattering N.1 Coherent and Incoherent Scattering for Hydrogen and Deuterium

11 XX Contents References 5'31 Index