PERFORMANCE LEVEL, ABILITIES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN YOUNG JUNIOR RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS: THE ROLE OF SPORT EXPERIENCE

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1 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 PERFORMANCE LEVEL, ABILITIES AND PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN YOUNG JUNIOR RHYTHMIC GYMNASTS: THE ROLE OF SPORT EXPERIENCE Vsiliki Zisi 1, Evgeni Ginnitsopoulou 2, Olg Vssilidou 2, Elisn Polltou 1 & Efthimis Kioumourtzoglou 3 1 Deprtment of Physicl Eduction nd Sport Science, University of Thessly 2 Deprtment of Physicl Eduction nd Sport Science, Aristotelin University of Thessloniki 3 Deprtment of Physicl Eduction nd Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrce vzisi@pe.uth.gr Abstrct This study exmined differences in selected cognitive, perceptul, motor bilities nd psychologicl chrcteristics mong elite rhythmic gymnsts ged 11 to 12 yers (Μ= ) of different performnce levels. The contribution of gymnsts experience yers (Μ= ) on these differences ws lso exmined. The 33 gymnsts - the top scorers t the Hellenic ntionl chmpionship - were clssified in three levels of performnce (high, medium, low) ccording to their men competitive performnce score on the 2001 Hellenic Ntionl Chmpionship semifinls nd finls. They prticipted in series of lbortory tests ssessing memory (retention nd grouping), nlytic bility, simple visul nd choice rection time, selective ttention, perception speed, two hnd coordintion, coincidence nticiption nd wrist-finger dexterity. Intrinsic motivtion ws ssessed using the Intrinsic Motivtion Inventory (IMI). Selfconfidence stte ws ssessed using subscle of Competitive Stte Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) nd self-confidence trit ws ssessed using the Veley s (1988) questionnire. According to the results, gymnsts t the high level of performnce outperformed gymnsts t the low level of performnce only on memory grouping nd self-confidence. Athletic experience, used s covrite, significntly ccounted for these differences. Differences on choice rection time nd coordintion referred from previous studies were not found most probbly due to the high level of gymnsts nd to the recent chnges in rhythmic gymnstics code of points. Modest scores on intrinsic motivtion were ttributed to the fct tht the study ws conducted bout three months before competitions. More reserch is needed to define the determinnts of elite performnce in rhythmic gymnstics. These findings however, cn provide useful informtion for designing trining schemes nd new competitive combintions for rhythmic gymnsts. Key words: rhythmic gymnstics, bilities, self-confidence, intrinsic motivtion. Introduction Sport performnce nd fctors ffecting it is min concern in the field of sport science. An re of reserch trying to identify such fctors follows the individul

2 V. Zisi et l.: Performnce level, bilities nd 2 differences pproch with the mjor focus on bilities. Abilities re considered reltively stble trits, probbly geneticlly defined, not esily modified by prctice or experience, which underlie performnce of vrious skills (Fleishmn, 1978). Abilities ffecting motor performnce re limited in number nd might be distinguished s cognitive relted to memory demnds, perceptul ssocited with the fcility for problem solving nd speed of processing informtion, nd motor relted to speed nd ccurcy of movements with little or no cognitive demnds (Mgill, 1998). The type of bilities required for skilled performnce, chnges with prctice nd experience. Ackermn (1988), relting chnges in bility requirements to skill cquisition, proposed tht cognitive, perceptul, nd psychomotor bilities re relted to performnce in the first (cognitive stge), second (motor stge), nd lst stge of lerning (utonomous stge), respectively. The individul differences pproch hs been implemented in two wys: the expert novices or thletes non-thletes comprison nd the ssocition of performnce with mesures of bilities. Such studies hve shown tht different bilities underlie performnce in different sports. In series of studies compring expert-novices, (Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis, & Theodorkis, 1998; Kioumourtzoglou, Kourtessis, Michlopoulou, & Derri, 1997; Kioumourtzoglou, Michlopoulou, Tzetzis, & Kourtessis, 2000), it ws found tht elite thletes in volleybll were chrcterized by superiority in multilimb coordintion, sense of rhythm, coincidence, perception speed, prediction, focused ttention nd movement detection. In bsketbll this superiority ws noted in hnd coordintion, memory-retention, selective ttention nd prediction mesures, while in wter-polo elite plyers found to be superior to non-thletes in kinesthesis, decision mking, visul rection time, sptil orienttion nd retention of informtion in memory. In hndbll, Lidor, Argov nd Dniel (1998) found tht skilled hndbll plyers outperformed novices on mesures of rection time nd motor bilities relted to throwing tsks. Strkes (1987), using multitsk pproch, noted tht elite field hockey plyers hve superior recll of gme-structure informtion, tke more ccurte but not fster tcticl decisions nd use more efficiently dvnce visul cues to predict where bll will be shot thn non-thletes. Following the performnce prediction implementtion Regnier nd Slmel (1987) found tht bilities relted to the criterion success in gymnstics vried cross ge groups with perceptul vribles (blnce, kinesthesis nd coordintion) usully contributing the most t ge groups from 14 to 16, while for ge groups over 17 morphologicl vribles were the most importnt for performnce. In soccer, it hs been found tht processes ssocited with fst response selection s mesured in choice rection time tsk, my ply n importnt role in instep-kicking performnce (Zisi, Derri, & Htzitki, 2003). Performnce in rchery ws ssocited with rection time nd depth perception (Lnders, Boutcher, & Wng, 1986). Hudson (1985) indicted tht performnce in bsketbll could be predicted by biomechnicl vribles t percentges rnging from 76 to 100%. Psychologicl chrcteristics re importnt determinnts of performnce too. There re severl studies investigting the reltion of sport performnce with vrious psychologicl chrcteristics. Self-confidence nd intrinsic motivtion however, yield good mount of scientific interest in this re. Self-confidence is chrcteristic of elite thletes in vrious sports such s swimming (Psychountki & Zervs, 2000), bsketbll (Prfitt & Ptes, 1999), Te Kwon-do (Chpmn, Lne, Brierley, & Terry, 1997), rchery (Lnders et l., 1986) nd gymnstics (Jones, Swin, & Hrdy, 1993). In their metnlysis Woodmn nd Hrdy (2003) indicted tht self-confidence hd gret impct on performnce, greter thn tht of cognitive nxiety. Assessment of intrinsic motivtion includes severl dimensions; mong them re perceived competence nd interest-enjoyment (McAuley, Duncn, & Tmmen, 1989). McAuley nd Tmmen (1989) found tht higher scores on the bove two dimensions were ssocited with better

3 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 3 performnce on one-on-one bsketbll jump-shooting competition. Perceived competence nd interest-enjoyment re lso relted with sport experience. Weignd nd Brodhurst (1989) found tht perceived competence ws significntly correlted with yers of thletic experience in soccer, while Boyd nd Yin (1996) found tht significnt sources of sport enjoyment included perceived competence nd yers of prticiption in orgnized sport. In rhythmic gymnstics reserch on the role of bilities nd psychologicl vribles in elite thletic performnce is rther limited. Following the expert-novices implementtion, Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Mertznidou nd Tzetzis (1997) found tht elite gymnsts scored higher on mesures of whole body coordintion, dynmic blnce, nd sttic blnce thn non thletes. In nother study, looking t vribles predicting performnce, Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis nd Kourtessis (1998) found tht eye hnd coordintion, whole-body rection time nd depth perception explined 40% of the ll round skill in rhythmic gymnsts ged yers, while dynmic blnce, kinesthesis nd depth perception explined 56% of the ll-round skill in gymnsts ged yers old. Visuo-motor coordintion ws lso significntly correlted with performnce in rhythmic gymnstics in the study of Hume, Hopkins, Robinson, D., Robinson, S. nd Hollings (1993). They lso found tht ttinment ws significntly correlted with some psychologicl chrcteristics such s mentl preprtion, motivtion by cretivity, nd severl dimensions of enjoyment. In nother study, conducted fter the drmtic chnges in the Interntionl Rhythmic Gymnstics code of points tht led to new structure nd perspective of the sport, Ginnitsopoulou, Zisi nd Kioumourtzoglou (2003) found tht different bilities predict performnce in ech pprtus of rhythmic gymnstics. More specificlly, they found tht in junior gymnsts, ged yers, the mount of performnce vrince explined by two hnd coordintion nd iming ws 73.6% in hoop nd 65.7% in club. Two hnd coordintion nd selective ttention explined 43.7% of vrince in bll performnce, while performnce in ribbon ws predicted only by two hnd coordintion (13.4%). In young junior gymnsts, ged yers the only significnt prediction ws tht of memory (grouping) nd choice rection time, which explined 18.5% of vrince in bll performnce. In the studies described bove thletic experience, which is the totl time of prticiption in the sport, usully is not tken into considertion. The prticiption time might not be of gret importnce in tem sports where open skills re minly involved s the bsic sport technique might be obtined in rther short period of time. In such sports, trining time in children ged yers is usully bout 6 hours per week. In rhythmic gymnstics however, where the weekly trining time is 18 to 24 hours on verge, few months of thletic experience might be importnt for the precision nd mstery of performnce, elements very importnt for thletic success. Besides rhythmic gymnstics is sport highly demnding in skills complexity. Working in such techniclly demnding sport, coches should hve lot to ern on selecting nd leding gymnsts to success if they knew which bilities nd psychologicl chrcteristics distinguish the top performers from other thletes; nd it should be of gret importnce to know wht might be improved through sport experience. The purpose of the present study ws to exmine differences in cognitive, perceptul, motor bilities nd psychologicl chrcteristics mong rhythmic gymnsts with different performnce level. The present study implemented new wy in clssifying gymnsts ccording to their performnce score in competition. In ddition, the effect of yers of experience ws lso studied. The ge group (ccording to the officil ge clssifiction of the Hellenic Gymnstics Federtion) selected ws young juniors ged yers. Assuming tht gymnsts follow bsic sport trining, it is the ge t which the selection of thletes for higher performnce Ntionl tems is

4 V. Zisi et l.: Performnce level, bilities nd 4 relized. So this ge is criticl for the thletes creer s it signls the trnsition to the high performnce stge. It ws hypothesized tht the higher the gymnsts performnce level, the better the performnce in mesures of bilities nd psychologicl chrcteristics should be. The greter differences however should be noted in cognitive nd perceptul bilities which re importnt t the first stges of lerning (Ackermn, 1998) s rhythmic gymnsts t this ge lern mny new complex skills following the bsic sport trining. Athletic experience ws expected to ccount for the differences on those mesures of bilities tht were specific to the sport, s bilities re reltive stble trits (Fleishmn, 1978). Psychologicl chrcteristics should be ffected by experience since they were mesured specificlly for the sport. Prticipnts Methods Thirty three (Ν=33) elite femle junior rhythmic gymnsts, the top scorers t the Hellenic ntionl chmpionship, volunteered to prticipte in this study, following informed consent. Their ge ws recorded in dy s pproximtion nd rnged from to yers (Μ= ). Their thletic experience ws recorded in month s pproximtion nd rnged from 3.83 to 7.01 yers (Μ= ). Gymnsts were clssified into one of three (high, medium, low) performnce level groups ccording to their men competitive performnce score. This score ws clculted s the men totl score of the 2001 Hellenic Ntionl Chmpionship semifinls nd finls in 4 pprtus: Free hnd, rope, hoop nd bll. Score rnged between for the high, for the medium nd for the low level of performnce group. Mens for competitive performnce scores, thletic experience nd ge in ech group, re depicted in Tble 1. The bilities nd psychologicl vribles tested in this study were selected by 35 rhythmic gymnstics experts (23 coches nd 12 judges) s the most criticl in rhythmic gymnstics performnce. The bilities tested were clssified ccording to the literture into cognitive (memory grouping nd nlytic bility), perceptul (simple nd choice rection time, selective ttention nd perception speed) nd motor (two hnd coordintion, coincidence nticiption nd wrist finger dexterity). The psychologicl vribles tested were sport self-confidence stte nd trit enjoyment nd perceived competence. Tble 1. Prticipnts chrcteristics. Level of performnce High Medium Low Totl Age (yrs) ± ± ± ± 0.62 Athletic experience (yrs) 5.61 ± ± ± ± 0.78 Competitive score (points) ± ± ± ± 0.76

5 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 5 Apprtus nd testing Cognitive bilities Μemory (grouping) test ws developed with Super Lb psychologicl testing softwre (Cedrus Corportion, 1997) nd hs been used in the pst in series of previous studies (Ginnitsopoulou et l., 2003; Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis, & Theodorkis, 1998; Kioumourtzoglou, Kourtessis, et l., 1997). Prticipnts wtched severl digits (numbers nd letters) presented on computer monitor for 4 sec nd fterwrds they verblly reclled s much of the mteril s they could. There were 2 prctice nd 20 experimentl items. In 10 items the digits were presented in rndom rrngement nd in the other 10 items the digits were displyed in n orgnized rrngement, while lwys digit ws plced t the outer borders of the disply s n outlier. The percent of correctly reclled digits, which ws presented on orgnized displys, on rndom displys nd s outliers ws recorded. Cronbch lph clculted for this test ws.87. Anlytic bility ws ssessed using the CPM (Colored Progressive Mtrices) computerized test of the Vienn Test System (Schuhfried, 1996). This test included 4 prctice nd 36 experimentl items of incresing difficulty. Ech item included series of four to nine schemes. A scheme hd been removed from the series. Six schemes were suggested s possible solutions to complete the series. Prticipnts nlyzed the logicl sequence of the schemes nd selected their response using light pen. The number of correct responses ws recorded. Cronbch lph for this test is Perceptul bilities Simple rection time ws ssessed using the Rection Test softwre of the Vienn Test System (Schuhfried, 1996) which included 4 prctice nd 24 experimentl trils. Prticipnts were seted comfortbly in front of monitor with the index finger of the dominnt hnd resting on touch sensitive key. As soon s blck circle turned to yellow, they hd to press button, locted eight cm bove the resting key, s soon s possible. The men rection time ws recorded (sec). Cronbch lph for this test is. 90. Choice rection time ws ssessed using the Determintion Test softwre of the Vienn Test System (Schuhfried, 1996). The test required rection to five different visul nd two different uditory stimuli. The visul stimuli were colored circles (green, blue, white, yellow, red) ppered on the computer screen nd corresponded to five round buttons of respective color rrnged in semicircle on the working pnel. The uditory stimuli were low nd high tone, presented vi erphones nd corresponded to two br buttons, which were locted in the middle of the colored buttons semicircle. Prticipnts were llowed to use ny finger of both hnds for their responses. The frequency of stimulus presenttion ws controlled by the working speed of the prticipnt. Prctice consisted of three phses (rection to: round circle, tones, nd combintion of the two). Test durtion ws four minutes nd the vribles recorded were the men rection time (sec) nd number of incorrect responses. Cronbch lph for this test is.99. Selective ttention test ws especilly developed for rhythmic gymnstics nd it ws similr to tests used for the ssessment of selective ttention in other sports (e.g. Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis, & Theodorkis, 1998). The experimentl procedure ws controlled by the Super Lb psychologicl testing softwre (Cedrus Corportion, 1997) nd included 3 prctice nd 20 experimentl items. In ech item, prticipnts

6 V. Zisi et l.: Performnce level, bilities nd 6 wtched photo showing phse from rhythmic gymnstics presented on computer monitor for 0.7 sec, followed by two questions concerning its contents. One of the questions referred to cues importnt for the sitution, wheres the other referred to irrelevnt cues. The gymnst hd to press button on the computer keybord choosing n nswer mong the three possible: YES, NO, I DIDN T SEE. The number of correct responses bout the irrelevnt nd relevnt cues ws recorded. Cronbch lph clculted for this test ws.94. Perception speed ws lso ssessed using test especilly developed for rhythmic gymnstics. The experimentl procedure ws controlled by Super Lb (Cedrus Corportion, 1997) nd ws similr to tht used for the ssessment of perception speed in other sports (Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis, & Theodorkis, 1998; Kioumourtzoglou, Kourtessis, et l., 1997). There were 2 prctice nd 20 experimentl items. In ech item the text of question regrding the content of the subsequent photo ws presented on the computer monitor. Prticipnts hd ll the time they need to red nd comprehend the question. Next, they pressed two keybord buttons simultneously (mrked s YES nd NO) to view the photo. Then they hd to look t the photo nd nswer the question, by pressing either the YES or NO button s fst s they could. The men rection time for the correct responses nd the number of correct responses ws recorded. Cronbch lph clculted for this test ws.94. Motor bilities Two-hnd coordintion ws tested with the 2Hnd softwre of the Vienn Test System (Schuhfried, 1996). The experimentl protocol included 2 prctice nd 4 test trils. In ech tril, prticipnts hd to move light dot long given pth shown on computer monitor using two sticks locted on work bord. The stick s movement ws restrined to left-right for the left stick nd up-down for the right stick. This pth consisted of three sections inverted L, V-shpe nd circulr rc imposing different demnds on the co-ordintion of the two hnds during the tril. Any devition of the dot s movement out of the given pth ws recorded s n error. The men time tken by the prticipnt to complete the test trils (sec) nd the percent of men errors durtion were recorded. Split-hlf relibility is between.93 nd.98 for men time tken for the totl pth, nd.88 for percent error time. Coincidence nticiption ws ssessed using the Bssin Anticiption Timer (Lfyette Instruments). This instrument hs been described in series of previous studies for the ssessment of coincidence nticiption (e.g. Kioumourtzoglou, Derri et l., 1997; Kioumourtzoglou et l., 2000) nd experiments on lerning motor tsks (e.g. Mgill, Chmberlin, & Hll, 1991). At the present study this instrument ws trck-wy module 160cm of length, contining 32 led nd it ws plced horizontlly t eye level. Prticipnts were seted 2 meters wy of the trck-wy holding switch button with the dominnt hnd. They hd to press the button with their thumb s soon s the light stimulus rrived t the lst led on the trck-wy. Ech tril begn with the illumintion of wrning led, followed by the successive left-to-right illumintion of the trck-wy led. After 3 prctice trils, they performed 8 testing trils t three stimulus speeds: 3, 5, nd 7 miles per hour (mph). The time elpsed between prticipnt s response nd the ctul time of stimulus rrivl t the lst led ws recorded s tril score. The men score of testing trils in ech condition ws used for the sttisticl nlysis. Wrist-finger dexterity ws ssessed using the respective test of the Motor Performnce Series of the Vienn Test System. Test-retest coefficients of this test series rnge between.52 nd.92. Prticipnts hd to pick 25 long pins from wooden bse nd put them in line on horizontl work bord, s fst s they could. The totl time of tril completion ws recorded.

7 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 7 Psychologicl vribles Three questionnires were used to ssess psychologicl vribles, modified for rhythmic gymnstics. The Intrinsic Motivtion Inventory (IMI) (McAuley et l., 1989) bsed on 7-points scle ws used for the ssessment of enjoyment nd perceived competence. In this study, Cronbch lph for enjoyment ws.53 nd for perceived competence ws.68. A subscle of the Greek version of the CSAI-2 (Tsorbtzoudis, Brkoukis, Kissidis-Rodfinos, & Grouios, 1998), bsed on 4-points scle ws used for the ssessment of self-confidence stte. Cronbch lph ws.71. For the ssessment of self-confidence trit the Veley s (1988) questionnire bsed on 7- points scle ws used. Cronbch lph ws.93. Sttisticl nlysis Dt were nlyzed using seprte one-wy ANOVAs nd MANOVAs for ech bility, depending on the number of vribles used for ssessment. When the min effect for level of performnce ws significnt, further nlysis of covrince ws crried out using yers of experience s covrite. Results Mens nd stndrd devitions of scores on ll vribles tested re presented in Tble 2 for ech of the three performnce level groups. MANOVA nlysis indicted significnt min effect of performnce level on memory (grouping) (Wilks s Λ=.575, p<.05). Test of between subjects effects indicted significnt group differences on the percent of correctly reclled digits t rndom (F 2,30 = 5.16, p <.05) nd orgnized rrngements (F 2,30 = 4.11, p <.05) but not on digits plced s outliers (p>.05). Bonferoni post hoc tests reveled tht the high performnce group performed significntly better thn the low performnce group on both vribles (Tble 2). When djusted for sport experience the differences on the percent of correctly reclled digits t orgnized displys were eliminted (p>.05), however the differences on rndom displys were still evident (F 2,30 = 3.78, p <.05). On nlytic bility, differences mong the three groups were smll nd not significnt. No significnt min effects of performnce level on perceptul bilities ws found (p>.05). As shown in Tble 2, higher performnce level ws not necessrily ccompnied by better score on simple rection time, selective ttention nd perceptul speed. A higher score on choice rection time ws noted in higher performnce level but this ws not confirmed by the sttisticl nlysis. On motor bilities, the high performnce level group performed better thn the two other groups on ll vribles mesured, however none of these differences ws significnt (p>.05).

8 V. Zisi et l.: Performnce level, bilities nd 8 Tble 2. Mens nd stndrd devitions on mesures of cognitive bilities in three levels of competitive performnce in young junior rhythmic gymnsts. Level of performnce Cognitive Abilities High Medium Low Memory (grouping) Rndom Correct Responses (%) ± 6.91* ± ± 8.05* Orgnized Correct Responses (%) ± 4.00* ± ± 5.15* Outliers Correct Responses (%) ± ± ± Anlytic Ability Correct Responses (n) ± ± ± 5.79 Simple Rection Time rection time (sec) ± ± ± Perceptul Abilities Choice Rection Time response time (sec) ± ± ± incorrect responses (n) 7.36 ± ± ± 7.31 Selective Attention relevnt correct responses (n) ± ± ± 1.97 irrelevnt correct responses (n) ± ± ± 1.97 Perception Speed response time (sec) 2.53 ± ± ± 0.94 correct responses (n) ± ± ± 2.21 Two hnd coordintion errors durtion (%) 4.87 ± ± ± 5.72 Motor Abilities men time durtion (sec) ± ± ± Coincidence Anticiption 3 mph (msec) ± ± ± mph (msec) ± ± ± mph (msec) ± ± ± Wrist-Finger Dexterity Time Durtion (sec) ± ± ± 6.51 A lower score indictes better performnce, * p<.05 Performnce level significntly ffected (Wilks s Λ=.672, p<.05) the psychologicl vribles tested (Tble 3). Test of between subjects effects indicted significnt group differences on both stte (F 2,30 = 4.16, p <.05) nd trit (F 2,30 = 4.74, p <.05) selfconfidence but not on enjoyment nd perceived competence (p>.05). Bonferoni post hoc tests reveled tht the high performnce group scored significntly better thn the low performnce group on both vribles (Tble 3). When djusted for sport experience the differences on self-confidence trit were eliminted (p>.05), however the differences on self-confidence stte were mrginlly significnt (F 2,30 = 3.28, p=.052).

9 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 9 Tble 3. Mens nd stndrd devitions on mesures of psychologicl vribles in three levels of competitive performnce in young junior rhythmic gymnsts. Level of performnce High Medium Low Self-Confidence Trit 6.05 ± 0.70* 5.66 ± ± 0.66* Self-Confidence Stte 3.71 ± 0.33* 3.46 ± ± 0.36* Enjoyment 5.49 ± ± ± 0.77 Perceived bility 5.80 ± ± ± 0.82 * p<.05 Discussion According to the results of the present study, performnce level ffected only one of the bilities tested, memory grouping which is clssified s cognitive bility. This result confirms the hypothesis tht the greter differences mong gymnsts of different performnce level should be noted in cognitive bilities s they lern mny new complex skills t this ge. Since there were no differences on mesures of bilities specific to the sport mong performnce levels, the hypothesis tht experience should ccount for the differences on those mesures of bilities could not be tested. Such mesures were conducted for perceptul bilities (selective ttention nd perception speed). On the contrry, experience significntly ffected non-specific to the sport bility, memory-grouping. Hypothesis for psychologicl chrcteristics ws confirmed only in prt. Performnce level significntly ffected only self-confidence nd thletic experience ccounted for these differences. The significnt effect of level of performnce on memory-grouping is in ccordnce with the findings of previous study (Ginnitsopoulou et l., 2003), where grouping informtion in memory ws significntly ssocited with rhythmic gymnstics ttinment t the ge group of yrs. The importnce of this bility for rhythmic gymnstics performnce is probbly ttributed to the complex technicl demnds of the sport, s previous studies report no significnt dvntge of elite thletes in this bility (e.g. Kioumourtzoglou, Kourtessis, et l., 1997). The complexity of rhythmic gymnstics skills imposes greter working memory demnds s this ws reflected by the significnt effect of performnce level on memory grouping in the present study. Gymnsts t the high performnce level reclled significntly more digits thn low-level performers t both rndom nd orgnized displys. The greter mount of informtion reclled immeditely fter presenttion indictes higher working memory cpcity of high-level performers. Experience however only ffected the recll on orgnized displys. This probbly mens tht experience in rhythmic gymnstics enhnces the strtegies tht children ged yrs referred to use in order to group informtion in memory (Ornstein & Nuns, 1978), even though this informtion is not specific to the sport. Perceptul bilities tested (simple nd choice rection time, selective ttention, perception speed) were not ffected by the performnce level. This is not in greement with findings of previous studies where choice nd whole body rection time found to be importnt for performnce in rhythmic gymnstics t the ge of yrs

10 V. Zisi et l.: Performnce level, bilities nd 10 (Ginnitsopoulou et l., 2003; Kioumourtzoglou, Derri et l., 1997). Rhythmic gymnstics is closed skills bsed sport nd therefore does not require rpid response selection unless mistke interrupts the predetermined sequence of elements in composition. In tht cse, fst nd correct rection might sve vluble points. The gymnsts prticipted in this study were the top scorers in the Hellenic chmpionship. We hypothesize tht choice rection time ws not ffected by performnce level, becuse elite thletes either do not mke mny mistkes or hve developed sufficient mechnisms to compenste for the ppernce of errors erly in prctice. Level of performnce did not ffect significntly ny of the motor bilities tested (two hnd coordintion, coincidence nticiption, wrist finger dexterity). According to previous studies, coordintion is n importnt bility for performnce in Rhythmic gymnstics (Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Tzetzis, & Kourtessis, 1998). This bility ws differentited between elite thletes nd non-thletes (Kioumourtzoglou, Derri et l., 1997) nd mong thletes with different level of performnce (Hume et l., 1993) s well. These studies however were conducted before the chnges of code points in Rhythmic gymnstics. It is hypothesized tht s result of the code chnges, the importnce of coordintion probbly shifted to older ge groups. This ws confirmed by study conducted fter the drmtic chnges in Code of points (Ginnitsopoulou et l., 2003), where coordintion ws importnt for performnce of gymnsts ged yrs but not for gymnsts ged yrs. Concerning the psychologicl chrcteristics, self-confidence ws significntly ffected by performnce level. This result is in ccordnce with the literture findings suggesting strong ssocition of self-confidence with elite performnce in vrious sports (Woodmn & Hrdy, 2003). Enhnced self-efficcy is probbly result of experience in the sport. According to the results of the present study, the contribution of sport experience in self-efficcy of gymnsts clssified t the high performnce level ws significnt t lest for the trit vrible. As shown in Tble 1, higher level of performnce ws ccompnied by longer experience time. Longer experience time in this sport does not men only more prctice time but lso prticiption in more competitions. More experienced gymnsts were more confident bout their selves since self-confidence is ssocited with previous performnce (Lne, Terry, & Krgeorghis, 1995). The mrginl significnce regrding the effect of experience on the stte vrible of self-efficcy might be due to the fct tht this study ws conducted bout three months before the competitions. Mtheson nd Mthes (1991) found tht femle high school gymnsts experienced lower self-confidence t dul meet thn t the chmpionship. They ttributed this finding to the greter uncertinty of outcome in competition nd the fct tht the dul meet occurred erly in the seson. The uncertinty bout the outcome probbly resulted to limited effect of experience on rhythmic gymnsts self-confidence. Time distnce from the competitions might be the reson for the modest scores on intrinsic motivtion mesures nd consequently the non-significnt effect of performnce level on this chrcteristic. Time distnce from the competition in rhythmic gymnstics mens tht gymnsts work less individully on the elements nd exercises of their composition. They rther prctice in groups on bsic exercises. Such conditions of prctice re likely to direct gymnsts to ego-involved chievement gols, compring their performnce nd efforts to others, especilly when the coch reinforces such climte. An ego-involved prospective however, is more likely to led to decresed intrinsic motivtion (Dud, Chi, Newton, Wlling, & Ctely, 1995). The lrge volume of trining t this time of the seson might lso negtively ffect intrinsic motivtion s elite performnce in rhythmic gymnstics hs been found to be negtively ssocited with enjoyment of trining (Hume et l., 1993). In conclusion, young junior rhythmic gymnsts t high performnce level show superior bility to retin informtion in memory for immedite recll. Sport experience

11 Interntionl Qurterly of Sport Science 2009/4 11 enhnces this bility in improving the orgniztion or grouping of this informtion in memory. Contrry to other studies, fst response selection does not seem to be importnt for elite thletes performnce nd coordintion is not ffected by performnce level t lest for the ge of yrs. In ccordnce with the findings for other sports, high level of performnce enhnces self-confidence nd this enhncement is ttributed to sport experience. Intrinsic motivtion is not ffected by level of performnce but this might be due to the time distnce from competitions. Although the need for more reserch on the determinnts of elite performnce in rhythmic gymnstics is pprent, the findings of the present study could help coches on providing more effective trining to their gymnsts. Coches should tke into ccount differences mong gymnsts in memory grouping when provide feedbck. Elite thletes with higher memory grouping bility re ble to mnge lrger mount of informtion. Enhnced bility of elite thletes to mnge informtion memory llows coches to put more elements in the competitive composition nd ern vluble points for rtistic vlue. Furthermore, coches should tke into ccount tht elite gymnsts with fewer yers of experience my suffer form lck of selfconfidence. They should lso focus on tsk-involved gol perspective in order to enhnce gymnsts perceived competence. References 1. Ackermn, P. (1988). Determinnts of individul differences during skill cquisition: cognitive bilities nd informtion processing. Journl of Experimentl Psychology: Generl, 117, Boyd, M.P. & Yin, Z. (1996). Cognitive-ffective sources of sport enjoyment in dolescent sport prticipnts. Adolescence, 31, Cedrus Corportion (1997). Super Lb, Generl purpose psychology testing softwre. 4. Phoenix, AZ: Cedrus Corportion. 5. Chpmn, C., Lne, A.M., Brierley, J.H., & Terry, P.C. (1997). Anxiety, self-confidence nd performnce in Te Kwon-Do. Perceptul nd Motor Skills, 85, Dud, J.L., Chi, L., Newton, M.L., Wlling, M.D., & Ctely, D. (1995). Tsk nd ego orienttion nd intrinsic motivtion in sport. Interntionl Journl of Sport Psychologist, 26, Fleishmn, E. (1978). Relting individul differences to the dimensions of humn tsks. Ergonomics, 21, Ginnitsopoulou, E., Zisi, V., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2003). Elite performnce in rhythmic gymnstics: do the chnges in code of points ffect the role of bilities? Journl of Humn Movement Studies, 45, Hume, P.A., Hopkins, W.G., Robinson, D.M., Robinson, S.M., & Hollings, S.C. (1993). Predictors of ttinment in rhythmic sportive gymnstics. The Journl of Sports Medicine nd Physicl Fitness, 33, Hudson, L. (1985). Prediction of bsketbll skill using biomechnicl vribles. Reserch Qurterly for Exercise nd Sport, 56, Jones, G., Swin, A., & Hrdy, L. (1993). Intensity nd direction dimensions of competitive stte nxiety nd reltionships with performnce. Journl of Sports Science, 11, Kioumourtzoglou, E., Michlopoulou, M., Tzetzis, G. & Kourtessis, T. (2000). Ability profile of the elite volleybll plyer. Perceptul nd Motor Skills, 90,

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