Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis

Transcription

1 Andrew D. Miall Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis Third, updated and enlarged edition With 468 Figures and 24 Tables Springer

2 Contents Part 1. The Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of Sedimentary Basins 1 Introduction Scope and Purpose of Book The Modern Revolution in Stratigraphy Traditional Stratigraphy Modern Developments The New Stratigraphic Method Time in Stratigraphy Types of Project and Data Problems Regional Surface Stratigraphic Mapping Project Local Stratigraphic-Sedimentologic Mapping Project Regional Subsurface Mapping Project Local Subsurface Mapping Project Summary of Research and Reporting Procedures 18 References 19 2 The Stratigraphic-Sedimentologic Database Introduction Describing Surface Stratigraphic Sections Methods of Measuring and Recording the Data: Vertical Stratigraphic Sections Methods of Measuring and Recording the Data: the Construction of Lateral Profiles Types of Field Observation Subdivision of the Section into Descriptive Units Lithology and Grain Size Porosity Color Bedding Sedimentary Structures Produced by Hydrodynamic Molding of the Bed Sedimentary Structures Produced by Hydrodynamic Erosion of the Bed Liquefaction, Load, and Fluid-Loss Structures Fossils Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Sampling Plan Illustrative Samples Petrographic Samples Biostratigraphic Samples Plotting the Section Describing Subsurface Stratigraphic Sections Methods of Measuring and Recording the Data Examination of Well Cuttings 64

3 XVI Contents Examination of Core Types of Cutting and Core Observation Subdivision of the Section into Descriptive Units Lithology and Grain Size Porosity Color Bedding Sedimentary Structures Fossils Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Sampling Plan Plotting the Section Petrophysical Logs Gamma-Ray Log Spontaneous-Potential Log Resistivity Logs Sonic Log Formation-Density Log Neutron Log Crossplots 75 References 77 3 Stratigraphic Correlation Introduction Types of Stratigraphic Unit Stratigraphic Procedures North American and International Stratigraphic Codes Establishing Named Units The Six Steps Involved in Dating and Correlation Lithostratigraphy Recognition of a Lithostratigraphic Subdivision Types of Lithostratigraphic Units and their Definition The Formation The Group The Member Tongue or Lentil Bed Choice of Names Changes in Rank Mapping and Correlation Procedures Surface Mapping Event Stratigraphy Section Matching Biostratigraphy The Nature of the Biostratigraphic Record Biostratigraphy and Evolution Biostratigraphy and Biogeography Life, Death, and Reworked Assemblages Conclusions Biozones Assemblage Biozone Range Biozone Concurrent-Range Biozone Lineage Biozone Other Biozone Terms Quantitative Methods in Biostratigraphy 109

4 Contents XVII The Graphic Correlation Technique Use of Multivariate Statistics Unconformity-Bounded Units Chronostratigraphy and Geochronometry Chronostratigraphic and Geochronometric Scales The Stage Chronostratigraphic Boundaries Radiometric Dating Radiometric Methods Uses in Stratigraphy Magnetostratigraphy Development of the Technique Uses in Stratigraphy Chemostratigraphic-Dating Techniques Other Correlation Techniques Stratigraphic Completeness The Global Time Scale The Phanerozoic The Precambrian 131 References Facies Analysis Introduction The Meaning of Facies Recognition and Definition of Facies Types Philosophy and Methods Field Examples of Facies Schemes Establishing a Facies Scheme Facies Architecture Facies Associations and Models The Association and Ordering of Facies The Theory of Facies Models The Present as the Key to the Past and Vice Versa To Classify and Codify or Not? Facies Analysis and Sequence Stratigraphy Review of Environmental Criteria Grain Size and Texture Petrology Bedding Sedimentary Structures Produced by Hydrodynamic Molding of the Bed Sedimentary Structures Produced by Hydrodynamic Erosion of the Bed Liquefaction, Load, and Fluid-Loss Structures Paleoecology Vertical Profiles Architectural Elements and Bounding Surfaces Architectural Scale and Bounding-Surface Hierarchies Architectural Elements Facies Models for a New Millenium Fluvial Environments Deltaic Environments Lacustrine Environments Eolian Environments Clastic Shorelines Arid Shorelines and Evaporites 212

5 XVIII Contents Clastic Continental Shelves Carbonate Environments Clastic Continental Slope and Deep-Oceanic Environments Glacial Environments Conclusions and Scale Considerations 232 References Basin-Mapping Methods Introduction Structure and Isopach Contouring Lithofacies Maps Multicomponent Maps Lithofacies-Assemblage Maps Single-Component Maps Geophysical Techniques Reflection-Seismic Maps and Sections Introduction The Nature of the Seismic Record Structural Mapping Seismic Facies Lithofacies Mapping with Petrophysical Logs TheDipmeter Other Geophysical Methods Clastic-Petrographic Data Paleocurrent Analysis Introduction Types of Paleocurrent Indicators Data Collection and Processing The Bedform Hierarchy Environment and Paleoslope Interpretations The Dipmeter Again Remote Sensing Computer Mapping Methods Sampling Density and Map Reliability Stratigraphic Cross Sections Paleogeographic Synthesis 309 References Sequence Stratigraphy Introduction Stratigraphic Architecture Depositional Systems and Systems Tracts Sequence Boundaries Systems Tracts and Sequences in Siliciclastic Deposits Nonmarine and Coastal Sequences Fluvial Sequences Lacustrine Sequences Eolian Sequences Incised Valleys and Estuaries Marginal-Marine and Shallow-Marine Sequences Deltas The Coast-Shelf Interface Sequences in Deep-Marine Siliciclastic Deposits Systems Tracts and Sequences in Carbonate Deposits Epeiric Platforms Rimmed Shelves 357

6 Contents XIX Isolated Platforms Ramps Mixed Carbonate-Clastic Systems Evaporites Conclusions 372 References 372 Part 2. Global Controls of Sedimentary Basin Development References Tectonism and Sedimentation: Principles and Models Introduction Components of a Basin Model Stratigraphy Basin and Crustal Geometry Porosity - Depth Relationships Paleobathymetry Sea-Level Change Physical Properties of the Lithosphere Extensional Basins Evolution of the Basic Model Backstripping Techniques Refinements of the Basic Extensional Model Basins Produced by Supracrustal Loading Evolution of the Basic Model Refinements of the Basic Supracrustal Loading Model Dynamic Topography Intraplate Stress Basin Inversion Basement Tectonic Control Application of the Modeling Techniques to Other Types of Basin Conclusions 412 References Regional and Global Stratigraphic Cycles Overview of Recent Developments Causes of Stratigraphic Cyclicity Supercontinent Cycles Mechanisms with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years Eustatic Cycles Tectonostratigraphic Cycles Conclusions Mechanisms with Million-Year Episodicities Intraplate Stress Sediment Supply Mechanisms with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years Milankovitch Mechanisms High-Frequency Tectonism The Stratigraphic Record Stratigraphic Effects of Supercontinent Assembly and Dispersal Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years Cratonic Cycles Regional Tectonostratigraphic Cycles Cycles with Episodicities in the Million-Year Range Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 443

7 XX Contents Neogene Clastic Cycles of Continental Margins Pre-Neogene Carbonate-Dominated Cycles Late-Paleozoic Cyclothems Clastic Cycles of Foreland Basins Cycle Correlation and the Global Eustasy Model Architectural Indicators of Tectonism, Sediment Supply, and Sea-Level Change: The Role of Stratigraphic Simulation Conclusions 459 References Sedimention and Plate Tectonics The Basin-Model Concept Basin Classification Basin Models Divergent-Margin Basins Tectonic Review Rift Basins Ocean-Margin Rises and Terraces Aulacogens and Failed Rifts Convergent-Margin Basins Tectonic Review Trenches and Subduction Complexes Forearc Basins Intra-Arc Basins Interarc and Backarc Basins on Oceanic or Transitional Crust Backarc Basins on Continental Crust Retroarc Foreland Basins Transform Margins and Strike-Slip Fault Basins Tectonic Review Sedimentary Basins Associated with Plate-Boundary Transform Faults Sedimentary Basins Associated with Divergent-Margin Transform Faults Sedimentary Basins Associated with Convergent-Margin Transcurrent Faults Sedimentary Basins Associated with Suture-Zone Transcurrent Faults Basins Associated with Suture Zones Introduction Basic Suture Model Arc-Arc Collision Collapse of Outboard Arcs Collisions of Continents with Arcs Terminal Sutures Proforeland, Foredeep, or Peripheral Basins Remnant Ocean Basins Basin Analysis of Suture Zones Basins and Uplifts Resulting from Intraplate Stresses Basin Analysis of Accretionary Terranes Cratonic Basins Tectonic Review Sedimentation Patterns Clastic Petrofacies Introduction Sandstone Composition and Plate-Tectonic Setting Examples of Petrofacies Interpretation 567

8 Contents XXI 9.5 Basin Models in the Precambrian Precambrian Plate Tectonics? The Evidence from Sedimentary Basins 572 References Conclusions 594 References 596 Author Index 597 Subject Index 605