Composition of Matter
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1 Matter The stuff that makes up the universe anything that takes up space States of matter Solid has definite shape and volume Liquid has definite volume, changeable shape Gas has changeable shape and volume
2 Composition of Matter Elements unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means carbon, oxygen, helium, uranium, gold, iron Only 24 elements have a role in our body 98.5% of body weight consists of O, C, H, N, Ca, P Atoms building blocks for each element
3 Periodic table The Chemical Elements atomic symbols of elements arranged by atomic number Atomic number of each element number of protons in its nucleus Only 24 elements have a role in our body 98.5% of body weight consists of O, C, H, N, Ca, P
4
5 Atomic Structure (Bohr or Planetary Model) Nucleus, the center of atom which contains: protons positive charge, mass (weight) of 1 atomic mass unit (amu) determines atomic number neutrons neutral (no) charge, mass of 1 amu Electron shells that surround the nucleus and contain: electrons negative charge, mass of 0 amu valence electrons are in the outermost shell furthest from the nucleus interact with other atoms All atoms have: an equal number of protons and electrons atoms are neutral (have no net charge) an atomic mass = total mass of protons + neutrons
6 Planetary Model of an Atom
7 Electron Shells The electron shell closest to the nucleus can hold up to 2 electrons additional electrons are located in shells outside of the first shell All other electron shells outside of the first shell can hold up to 8 electrons octet rule an electron shell is full when there are: 2 electrons in the first shell 8 electrons in 2 nd, 3 rd, 4 th, shell If the valence shell of an atom is not completely FULL, then that atom is UNSTABLE valance electrons of unstable atoms interact with valance electrons of other unstable atoms to create chemical bonds allows both atoms to become stable
8 Atomic Structure Nucleus, the center of atom which contains: protons positive charge, mass (weight) of 1 atomic mass unit (amu), determines atomic number neutrons neutral (no) charge, mass of 1 amu atomic mass = total # of protons + neutrons Electron shells electrons: negative charge # of electrons = # of protons, atoms have neutral charge electrons further from nucleus have higher energy valence electrons are in the outermost shell interact with other atoms determine chemical behavior
9 Planetary Models of Atoms p + represents protons, n o represents neutrons
10 Chemical Bonds The reaction between 2 atoms results in the formation of a chemical bond Bonds are formed between 2 atoms using the electrons in the valence shell of each atom An atom is stable when the valence shell is completely full (satisfying the octet rule ) Octet rule except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their valence shell (thus becoming stable)
11 Chemically Inert (Non-reactive) Elements Inert elements have their valence shell fully occupied by electrons
12 Reactive elements do not have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons Chemically Reactive Elements
13 Types of Chemical Bonds Ionic Covalent Hydrogen
14 Molecules and Compounds Molecules two or more atoms of same element covalently bonded Compounds two or more atoms of different elements covalently bonded Structural formula shows arrangement of atoms Molecular formula itemizes each element present and its quantity
15 Molecular and Structural Formula
16 Formation of an Ionic Bond Ionic bonds form between atoms after the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another atom in a process called ionization results in the creation of 2 ions Ions atoms that have an unequal numbers of protons and electrons also known as electrolytes
17 Anions and Cations Cation atom lost one or more electrons more protons than electrons = net positive charge Anion atom gained one or more electrons more electrons than protons = net negative charge
18 Ionic bonds cannot exist in water the bond breaks (dissociates) the components of the molecule exist in their ionic form (anion and cation) in the body NaCl + H 2 O Na+ and Cl - +H 2 O Anions and Cations The anion and the cation are held together by the ATTRACTION between a positively charged substance and a negatively charged substance 2 substances that have the same charge REPELL one another Atoms bound by ionic bonds form crystals (salts) NaCl (sodium chloride)
19 Covalent Bonds Formed by sharing valence electrons between 2 atoms Types of covalent bonds include: polar and nonpolar covalent bonds Are stable (Do NOT dissociate) in water Nearly all biologically important molecules are made from atoms bonded together with covalent bonds
20 Polar Covalent Bonds Polar (electrically charged) bonds occur between an electronegative atom (O or N) and an atom that is neither O nor N the nucleus of an electronegative atom has a stronger pull on the shared electrons, pulling the shared electron(s) closer to it this causes the electronegative atom to become partially negative while the other atom in the covalent bond becomes partially positive similar to a battery electrons shared unequally
21 Nonpolar Covalent Bonds Nonpolar bonds occur between two atoms neither of which are O or N the shared electrons are pulled equally between the nuclei of the 2 atoms both atoms remain neutral the nonpolar covalent bond is neutral electrons shared equally
22 Ions Ions atoms that carry a charge (unequal numbers of protons and electrons) Ionization - transfer of electrons from one atom to another (provides stability of the atom)
23 Anions and Cations Anion - atom gained electron, net negative charge Cation - atom lost an electron, net positive charge
24 Formation of an Ionic Bond Ionic bonds form between atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons One atom donates one or more electrons, becoming a cation (+), the other atom accepts the donated electron(s), becoming an anion (-) The anion and the cation are attracted to one another and are held together by an ionic bond Example: NaCl (sodium chloride) In water (such as in your body) the ionic bond dissociates (breaks) and the components of the molecule exist in their ionic form (anion and cation) NaCl Na + and Cl -
25 Ionic Bonds Ionic bonds are weak and dissociate (break) in water These compounds tend to form crystals (salts)
26 Formation of an Ionic Bond
27 Formation of an Ionic Bond
28 Formation of an Ionic Bond
29 Sodium Chloride Crystal
30 Sodium Chloride Crystals
31 Covalent Bonds Formed by sharing valence electrons between 2 atoms Different types of covalent bonds single covalent bond double covalent bond nonpolar covalent bond polar covalent bond DO NOT dissociate in water because all molecules that are formed by ionic bonds dissociate in water, only molecules that are formed by covalent bonds exist (and function) in the body
32 Single Covalent Bond One pair of electrons are shared
33 Single Covalent Bond
34 Double Covalent Bond Two pairs of electrons are shared
35 Sharing of electrons The sharing of electrons in a covalent bond can be either equal or unequal When the shared electrons between 2 atoms is such that the electrons are located exactly between the nuclei of 2 atoms, the sharing is said to be equal In other words, the shared electrons are not closer to the nucleus of either atom However, when the shared electrons between 2 atoms is such that they are closer to one of the 2 atoms, the sharing is said to be unequal In other words, the shared electrons are closer to the nucleus of one atom and further away from the nucleus of the other atom
36 Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds Electrons shared equally between atoms produce nonpolar bonds because the negative charge of the electron is spaced evenly between the 2 atoms Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar bonds Polar bonds occur between an electronegative atom (O or N) and an atom that is not O or N Electronegative atoms have a stronger pull on the shared electrons, pulling the electrons closer to it This causes the electronegative atom to become partially negative while the other atom in the covalent bond becomes partially positively
37 Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds electrons shared equally electrons shared unequally
38 Functional Groups small groups of covalently bonded atoms arranged in a very specific manner parts of large compounds (carbohydrates, proteins, fats and nucleotides) determine the chemical properties of large compounds (polar vs nonpolar, acid vs base) react with functional groups on other compounds
39 Acid/Base Concentration (ph) ph is the measurement on a scale ranging from 0 to 14 of H + concentration in a solution H + is the ionized form of a hydrogen atom the only electron has been removed, leaving a single proton H + = hydrogen ion = proton ph = -log[h + ] [H + ] = molar concentration of H + in a solution the greater the [H + ] the lower the ph, the lower the [H + ] the higher the ph Acidic solutions have higher [H + ] a lower ph Alkaline (basic) solutions have lower [H + ] a higher ph
40 ph Scale Acidic: ph Basic: ph Neutral: ph 7.00
41 Acids and Bases Acids are molecules that are capable of increasing the number of H + in a solution called proton donors decrease the ph of a solution Bases are molecules that are capable of decreasing the number of H + in a solution are called proton acceptors increase the ph of a solution
42 Buffers Substances that are capable of resisting large changes in the ph of a solution allow ph to remain relatively constant buffers in the body allow the body ph to remain at 7.4 (slightly basic)
43 Water as a Solvent water molecules overpower the ionic bond above between Na + Cl - by forming hydration spheres note orientation of water molecules: negative pole faces Na +, positive pole faces Cl -
44 Substances that are physically blended but not chemically combined Water is the most abundant compound in biological mixtures Solutions Colloids Suspensions Liquid Mixtures
45 Solutions Consists of: Solute (less abundant substance in mixture) which is dissolved in the solvent Solvent (more abundant substance in mixture) always water in the body Transparent e.g. copper sulfate solution
46 Concentration of Solutions Measurement of the amount of solute(s) in a solution Weight per Volume weight of solute in a given volume of solution 8.5 grams of dextrose in 1 liter of water = 8.5 g/l Percentages weight or volume of solute in solution 2 grams of dextrose + 8 grams of H 2 O is a solution containing a total of 10 grams 2 of the 10 grams is dextrose, therefore this solution is a 20% dextrose solution
47 Concentration of Solutions Molarity number of moles of solute/liter in solution based on molecular weight (MW) the addition of the atomic masses of a molecule H 2 O = H (1 amu) x 2 + O (16 amu) = 18 amu MW for a known MW, weigh out that many grams, this gives you its gram molecular weight or 1 mole 1 mole always contains the same number of molecules ( = Avogadro s number) MW of glucose is 180, so one mole of glucose is 180g, a one molar solution of glucose contains 180g/L
48 Percentage vs. Molar Concentrations Percentage Molar # of molecules unequal weight of solute equal # of molecules equal weight of solute unequal
49 Concentration of Solutions Osmolarity total molarity of all solute particles in a solution used when measuring concentrations of solutions that contain multiple solutes (such as a dissociated salt) 2 moles of NaCl + 3 moles of glucose in 1L of water = 7 osmolar solution in water, 2 moles of NaCl = 2 moles of Na + and 2 moles of Cl - (4 moles together)
50 The solute is not dissolved in the solvent, but rather is suspended within the solvent The solute settles to the bottom of the container, separating from the solvent Cloudy or opaque Separate on standing e.g. blood Suspensions
51 The solute is not dissolved in the solvent, but rather is suspended within the solvent The solute does not settle to the bottom of the container, separating from the solvent Cloudy e.g. milk Colloids
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