3.3 MINERALS. Abundance of Major Elements in the Continental Crust
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- Claude Wheeler
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1 3.3 MINERALS What is the earth made of? This is a rather complicated question which can be handled at many levels. Here we ll touch on it very superficially - you will learn more in B01, and even more in higher level (Mineralogy) classes (here all that matters is hearing the name once!) For now we ll take the simplest approach, and look at elements in the continental crust. Abundance of Major Elements in the Continental Crust weight% atomic% ionic volume% oxygen (O) silicon (Si) aluminum (Al) iron (Fe) calcium (Ca) sodium (Na) potassium (K) magnesium (Mg) Hydrogen (H) Note: the continental crust is almost all Si and O Alternatively, we can think about the composition of different portions of the earth in terms of oxides and other simple minerals - in reality these are not the actual minerals present.
2 -2- Composition of Earth Structures in Weight % continental ocean mantle core crust crust (stony meteorite) (iron meteorite) SiO (less) - TiO Al 2 O (less) - Fe 2 O FeO (more) - FeS Fe ± 5 Ni ±2 Co MgO (more) - CaO Na 2 O K 2 O ~10% unknown light element (probably S or Si) in the core Note: We conclude the oceanic crust is more like the mantle than the continental crust! In reality, these oxides and elements occur in chemical compounds called minerals which form rocks. We only need a few very simple ideas - later courses will do this in more detail... Most rocks are made up of silicate minerals, primarily Oxygen (O 2 )and Silicon (Si +4 ). Together these two make upabasic building block - the tetrahedron. The Si +4 ion s radius is about 1/3 that of O 2,soeach Si ion is surrounded by four O 2 -each at the vertices of a tetrahedron. This tetrahedron is SiO4 4.Itcan be bound to other tetrahedra by sharing the oxygens with an adjacent Si +4. Other cations (positively charged ions) can be inserted in the interstices (spaces) between: Na +, K +, Ca 2+,Mg 2+,Fe 2+ (ferrous), Fe 3+ (ferric). Ingeneral the cations are smaller than the anions (like O 2 )-most of the crystal s volume is anions with cations fit in. Aluminum (Al +3 )isanother important cation - it can replace Si in a structure because it s similar in size.
3 -3-
4 -4- To gomuch further requires -lots of time -crystal structure models -ability to think (and draw!) in 3-D Instead, we ll just cover afew basic ideas: QUARTZ is a mineral composed only of SiO 2 (silica), but SiO 2 can be in many other forms (framework - all oxygens shared). OLIVINE is an isolated SiO 4 tetrahedra with Mg +2 and Fe +2 between the oxygens. This is a solid solution we could write as: (Mg, Fe) 2 SiO 4 (Mg and Fe have variable compositions with the end members) Fe 2 SiO 4 (Fayalite) and Mg 2 SiO 4 (Forsterite) Fayalite and Forsterite = Mantle PYROXENES are minerals composed of single chains of tetrahedra. These minerals have more complex solid solutions with many variants (the structures get complicated fast!) Lots of info - underline the few weneed to know! If this isn t bad enough, more complex solid solutions can occur, i.e. in diopside. Ca Mg Si 2 O 6 Where any ofthe following may substitute: (Ca, Fe, Na) Ca
5 -5(Fe2+, Fe3+, Al, Ti) Mg (Al, Fe3+ ) Si2 The criteria for this is complicated - you can see that mineralogy gets interesting fast! Note that only certain solid solutions exist naturally. FELDSPARS - Most common mineral group in continental crust, structurally complex, this is where lots of the Al resides. These are framework silicates - each SiO4 or AlO4 tetrahedron shares all its oxygens. GARNETS - complicated systems of the form A3 B2 (SiO4) 3 with A2+ = Ca, Mg, Fe2+ B3+ = Al, Fe3+, Cr3+ SPINELS - Minerals of the form AB2 O4 A2+ = Fe2+, Mg2+ B3+ = Fe3+, Cr, Al3+ Two important examples: Magnetite Fe3 O4 -- rock magnetism Spinel MgAl2 O4 /fbaside: X-ray Diffraction How do they figure out all this stuff? Several techniques may be used. One is X-Ray Diffraction. A crystal consists of regularly spaced planes of atoms
6 -6- Suppose waves, X rays (electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ~ 10 9 m), are incident on two crystal planes and consider the reflection What is the path difference between the two? 2d sin! The reflected X rays are in-phase, interfere constructively, so 2d sin = n (Bragg s Law) isanintegral number of wavelengths of the X-rays Schematic output: The amplitude and peak locations are used to identify minerals.
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