Environmental Science. Engineering P. VENUGOPALA RAO

Transcription

1 PRINCIPLES OF Environmental Science & Engineering P. VENUGOPALA RAO

2 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING P. VENUGOPALA RAO Director Sridevi Women s Engineering College Hyderabad New Delhi

3 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING P. Venugopala Rao 2006 by PHI Learing Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Sixth Printing September, 2012 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi and Printed by Mudrak, 30-A, Patparganj, Delhi

4 CONTENTS Preface xi Part One Ecosystems and Population Welfare 1. BIOSPHERE Constituents 3 Atmosphere 4 Lithosphere 6 Hydrosphere Biogeochemical Cycles 8 Carbon Cycle 8 Nitrogen Cycle 8 Oxygen Cycle 10 Phosphorous Cycle 10 Sulphur Cycle Human Activities Sustainable Development 12 Summary 13 Keywords 13 Solved Questions 13 Review Questions 15 Objective Type Questions NATURAL RESOURCES Introduction Land Resources 18 Soil Formation 18 Soil Erosion 19 Land Degradation 19 Prevention and Control 19 Waste Land Reclamation Mineral Resources 20 iii

5 iv Contents 2.4 Food Resources 22 Livestock and Fisheries Forest Resources 23 Demerits of Deforestation Water Resources 25 Hydrological Cycle 25 River Valley Projects 27 Floods and Droughts 28 Watershed Management Practices Energy Resources 30 Fossil Fuels 31 Hydel Power Plants 32 Biogas 33 Nuclear Energy 33 Ocean Energy 34 Solar Energy 35 Fuel Cells 35 Energy Conservation and Sustainability 35 Summary 36 Keywords 37 Solved Questions 37 Review Questions 38 Objective Type Questions ECOSYSTEMS Introduction 40 Characteristics of an Ecosystem Structure of an Ecosystem 42 Biotic Components 42 Abiotic Components Functions of an Ecosystem 46 Energy 46 Primary Production 46 Secondary Production 47 Food Chain 48 Food Web 50 Energy Flow 52 Ecological Pyramids 54 Biogeochemical Cycles Ecological Succession 56 Kinds of Succession 56

6 Contents v 3.5 Types of Ecosystems 59 Aquatic Ecosystems 59 Terrestrial Ecosystem 68 Mountains and Caves 71 Summary 72 Keywords 72 Solved Questions 72 Review Questions 74 Objective Type Questions BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION Introduction Composition of Biodiversity 76 Genetic Diversity (Diversity within Species) 76 Species Diversity 79 Ecosystem Diversity Factors Affecting Diversity Value of Biodiversity Biodiversity at Global Level 82 Biodiversity at National Level (India as a Megadiversity Nation) Threats to Biodiversity 84 Natural Causes of Extinction 85 Anthropogenic Threats to Biodiversity Endemism and Biodiversity 90 Endemic Species of India 90 Endangered Species of India 91 Endangered Flora of India 92 Endangered Fauna of India Biogeographical Zones of India Hot Spots of Biodiversity Conservation of Biodiversity 97 In situ Conservation Strategies 98 Ex situ Conservation Strategies 100 Problems in Conservation 102 Legal Coverage 102 Indian Scenario 103 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) 103 Recommendations 104 Success Stories 104 Summary 105 Keywords 105 Solved Questions 105 Review Questions 107 Objective Type Questions 108

7 vi Contents 5. COMMUNITY HEALTH Population Studies 109 Population Welfare 112 Women and Child Welfare Disease Transmission 113 Occupational Health Environment and Health Environmental Sanitation Measures HIV and AIDS 117 Summary 118 Keywords 118 Solved Questions 119 Review Questions 121 Objective Type Questions 121 Part Two Pollution Control and Environmental Management 6. POLLUTION AND CONTROL Air Pollution 125 Sources and Characteristics 126 Characteristics of Pollutants 128 Harmful Effects of Air Pollution 131 Air Quality Standards 131 Pollution Sampling and Analysis 132 Meteorology 134 Removal of Particulate Matter 134 Control of Gaseous Impurities 140 Indoor Air Pollution 142 Vehicular Pollution Water Pollution 143 Water Supplies 143 Domestic Sewage 145 Waste Water from Industries 146 Activities Concerned with Water Pollution 151 Water Pollution 151 Harmful Effects 152 Waste Water Treatment 153 Water Purification Solid Wastes Disposal 168 Municipal Wastes 168 Hazardous Waste 170

8 Contents vii 6.4 Soil Pollution 170 Soil Remediation Marine Pollution Thermal Pollution Noise Pollution 172 Summary 174 Keywords 174 Solved Questions 175 Review Questions 176 Objective Type Questions ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Urbanization 178 Problems Associated with Urbanization 179 Carrying Capacity of a Region 179 Remedies Industrialization 181 Remedies Agricultural Revolution Inversion 183 Photochemical Smog Acid Rain 184 Adverse Impacts Greenhouse Effect Ozone Layer Depletion 186 Causes of Depletion 187 Harmful Effects 187 Remedies Global Warming 188 Harmful Effects Hazardous Wastes 189 Nuclear Wastes Disaster Management 191 Preventive Measures 191 Summary 192 Keywords 192 Solved Questions 192 Review Questions 193 Objective Type Questions 194

9 viii Contents 8. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT Environmental Impact Assessment 195 Methodology Waste as a Resource Environmental Laws 201 Requirements of a Contract 201 Environmental Legislations 201 Powers and Functions of Pollution Control Boards 207 Case Studies Environmental Management Plan 208 Environmental Audit Policies for Quality Improvement 209 Problems 209 Policy 210 Summary 212 Keywords 212 Solved Questions 212 Review Questions 215 Objective Type Questions SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Ethics 216 Laws of Nature 217 Progress Environmental Stress Sustainability Self-purification and Regeneration Action Plan Computerization and Information Technology 223 Summary 224 Keywords 224 Solved Questions 224 Review Questions 225 Objective Type Questions 226 Part Three Environmental Science 10. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Introduction 229

10 Contents ix 10.2 Chemical Cycles in Nature 233 Carbon Cycle 234 Nitrogen Cycle 234 Phosphate Cycle 234 Sulphur Cycle Chemical Reactions Toxic Chemicals Applications in the Treatment Processes ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY Microorganisms Environmental Significance Biological Decomposition Bio-remediation Bio-energy from Wastes Other Methods MONITORING AND ANALYSIS OF POLLUTANTS Sampling General Methods of Analysis 249 Colour Comparison Method Analysis of Water and Waste Water 250 Colour 250 Turbidity 250 Total Solids 250 Acidity 251 Alkalinity 251 ph 251 Chlorides 251 Total Hardness 251 Chlorine 252 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 252 Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 252 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 252 Iron 253 Sulphates 253 Bacteriological Examination Air Quality Analysis 253 Suspended Particulate Matter 254 APPENDIX A.1 Interlinking of Indian Rivers 255 Himalayan Component 255 Peninsular River Development 256

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