Chromosome number An Overview of Meiosis. An Overview of Meiosis. Overview of Meiosis
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1 10.1 An Overview of Meiosis Chromosome number Human cells - Diploid 46 total chromosomes per cell 46 - Diploid number Humans cells - 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes 23 - Haploid number The number of different kinds of chromosomes Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. An Overview of Meiosis Human cells are considered diploid because each cell has two copies Some organisms Haploid triploid tetraploid Overview of Meiosis Meiosis Process of a single diploid cell dividing to produce four haploid cells Cells that contain a single set of chromosomes For reproduction 1
2 Overview of Meiosis Gametes Haploid cells produced through meiosis are Female gametes are eggs Male gametes are sperm. They are the reproductive cells of human beings and many other organisms. Meiosis Compared to Mitosis homologous pairs Homologous means the same in size and function 1. Both mitosis and meiosis are initiated in cells that are diploid or, meaning cells that contain paired sets of Mitosis Meiosis chromosomes. The members of each pair are homologous the same in size and function. Two pairs of homologous chromosomes are shown within the cells somatic gamete in both the mitosis and meiosis figures. In each cell precursor homologous pair, one chromosome (in red) comes from the mother of the person whose cell is undergoing meiosis, while the other chromosome (in blue) comes from the father of this person. duplication duplication 2. Prior to the initiation of both mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate. In both processes, each chromosome is now composed of two sister chromatids. 3. In mitosis, the chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, one sister chromatid on each side of the plate. In meiosis, homologous chromosomes not sister chromatids line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate. 4. In mitosis, the sister chromatids separate. In meiosis, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate. 5. In mitosis, cell takes place, and each of the sister chromatids from step 4 is now a full-fledged chromosome. Mitosis is finished. In meiosis, one member of each homologous pair has gone to one cell, the other member to the other cell. Because each of these cells now has only a single set of chromosomes, each is in the haploid or state. Next, these single chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, with their sister chromatids on opposite sides of the plate. 6. The sister chromatids of each chromosome then separate. 7. The cells divide again, yielding four haploid cells. Figure 10.1 Overview of Meiosis When the haploid sperm and haploid egg fuse, a diploid fertilized egg (or zygote) is produced, setting into development a new generation of organism The Steps in Meiosis Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. 2
3 The Steps in Meiosis Meiosis one round of chromosome duplication followed by two rounds of cell No second chromosome duplication after first somatic cell duplication Mitosis Homologous means the same in size and function gamete precursor Meiosis homologous pairs 1. Both mitosis and meiosis are initiated in cells that are diploid or, meaning cells that contain paired sets of chromosomes. The members of each pair are homologous the same in size and function. Two pairs of homologous chromosomes are shown within the cells in both the mitosis and meiosis figures. In each homologous pair, one chromosome (in red) comes from the mother of the person whose duplication cell is undergoing meiosis, while the other chromosome (in blue) comes from the father of this person. 2. Prior to the initiation of both mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate. In both processes, each chromosome is now composed of two sister chromatids. The Steps in Meiosis Two primary stages in meiosis meiosis I meiosis II 3. In mitosis, the chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, one sister chromatid on each side of the plate. In meiosis, homologous chromosomes not sister chromatids line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate. 4. In mitosis, the sister chromatids separate. In meiosis, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate. 5. In mitosis, cell takes place, and each of the sister chromatids from step 4 is now a full-fledged chromosome. Mitosis is finished. In meiosis, one member of each homologous pair has gone to one cell, the other member to the other cell. Because each of these cells now has only a single set of chromosomes, each is in the haploid or state. Next, these single chromosomes line up on 6. the The metaphase sister chromatids plate, with of each their chromosome sister chromatids then separate. on opposite sides of the plate. 7. The cells divide again, yielding four haploid cells. Prophase I (after chromosome duplication) First - pairing of homologous chromosomes Crossing-over occurs Homologous chromosomes exchange reciprocal sections of themselves Increases variation Results in no two sperm or eggs being identical Metaphase I Homologous chromosome pairs line up at the metaphase plate One member of each homologous pair is on one side of the plate, the other member is on the other side Random assortment 3
4 Anaphase I Homologous pairs separate each will become part of a separate daughter cell. Telophase I separated Homologous pairs reach opposite poles Cytokinesis I Two daughter cells fully separated Now haploid 23 chromosomes per cell No homologous pairs present Each chromosome still in duplicated state I I Sister chromatids of the duplicated chromosomes are separated into separate daughter cells No subsequent DNA replication Proceeds much like mitosis from this point Only 23 sets of sister chromatids present instead of 46 4
5 I I Prophase II Nuclear membranes breakdown If they reformed at all after meiosis I New mitotic spindle forms Metaphase II 23 sister chromatids lined up on metaphase plate Attached to mitotic spindle at the centromere I I Anaphase II 23 sets of sister chromatids separate at centromere Travel to poles Telophase II Separated chromosomes at the poles Nuclear envelopes reform Cleavage furrow begins to form Cytokenesis II Cleavage furrow grows to pinch off cell in to two new daughter cells Now FOUR daughter haploid gametes, ready for maturation I (a) Diploid Haploid I cytokinesis cytokinesis 10.3 What is the Significance of Meiosis? End of interphase DNA has already duplicated Prophase I Homologous chromosomes link as they condense, forming tetrads. Crossing over occurs. Metaphase I Microtubules move homologous chromosomes to metaphase plate. Independent assortment occurs. Anaphase I Microtubules separate homologous chromosomes (sister chromatids remain together). Telophase I Two haploid daughter cells result from cytokinesis. Prophase II (Brief) Metaphase II Sister chromatids line up at new metaphase plate. Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate. Telophase II Four haploid cells result. Compare these cells to the cells above First important source of genetic variation Second important source of genetic variation Metaphase II Telophase II (b) Crossing over Exchange of parts of non-sister chromatids. duplicated duplicated maternal paternal chromosome chromosome tetrad (c) Independent assortment Random alignment of maternal/paternal chromosomes at the metaphase plate. Metaphase I Metaphase I sister chromatids non-sister chromatids In the sequence above, homologous chromosomes lined up this way in Metaphase I but they could have lined up this way, yielding a different outcome. Figure 10.2 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. 5
6 What is the Significance of Meiosis? Meiosis Generates Diversity Meiosis Generates diversity by ensuring that the gametes it gives rise to will differ genetically from one another. Meiosis is unlike mitosis In mitosis, TWO daughter cells are exact genetic copies of parent cells Diploid (46 chromosomes) 2 copies of each homologous chromosome (23x2) In meiosis, FOUR daughter cells (gametes) are not identical Haploid (23 chromosomes) 1 copy of each chromosome Meiosis Compared to Mitosis Meiosis Homologous somatic cell duplication Mitosis means the same in size and function gamete precursor Meiosis 3. In mitosis, the chromosomes line up on the metaphase homologous pairs 1. Both mitosis and meiosis are initiated in cells that are diploid or, meaning cells that contain paired sets of chromosomes. The members of each pair are homologous the same in size and function. Two pairs of homologous chromosomes are shown within the cells in both the mitosis and meiosis figures. In each homologous pair, one chromosome (in red) comes from the mother of the person whose cell is undergoing meiosis, while the other chromosome (in blue) comes from the father of this person. duplication 2. Prior to the initiation of both mitosis and meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate. In both processes, each chromosome is now composed of two sister chromatids. plate, one sister chromatid on each side of the plate. In meiosis, homologous chromosomes not sister chromatids line up on opposite sides of the Meiosis provides variation in gametes in two ways Crossing over Independent assortment metaphase plate. 4. In mitosis, the sister chromatids separate. In meiosis, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate. 5. In mitosis, cell takes place, and each of the sister chromatids from step 4 is now a full-fledged chromosome. Mitosis is finished. In meiosis, one member of each homologous pair has gone to one cell, the other member to the other cell. Because each of these cells now has only a single set of chromosomes, each is in the haploid or state. Next, these single chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate, with their sister chromatids on opposite sides of the plate. 6. The sister chromatids of each chromosome then separate. 7. The cells divide again, yielding four haploid cells. Figure
7 Meiosis Generates Diversity Meiosis Generates Diversity Crossing over Prophase I of meiosis Homologous chromosomes pair with each other Chromosomes exchange reciprocal segments with one another Tetrads Aligned replicated homologous pairs Chiasma Point on the chromosomes where crossing over occurs Meiosis Generates Diversity Meiosis Generates Diversity Independent assortment Metaphase I of meiosis Random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes (homologous pairs) on either side of the metaphase plate Random chance alignment determines which daughter cell each chromosome (maternal or paternal) will end up in 7
8 Meiosis Generates Diversity Genetic diversity from meiosis and sexual reproduction Largely responsible for the great diversity of life-forms seen in the living world today. Meiosis Generates Diversity Variation provided by meiosis and sexual reproduction One of the major sources of variation for evolution to work upon Through natural selection Asexual reproduction In bacteria and other organisms Offspring are exact genetic copies, or clones, of the parental organism Variation only arises through mutation 10.4 Meiosis and Sex Outcome Meiosis and Sex Outcome Human females 23 matched pairs of chromosomes 22 pairs of autosomes one pair of sex-determining chromosomes females are XX Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. 8
9 Meiosis and Sex Outcome The X and the Y Human males 22 autosomes One pair of sex chromosomes one X and one Y Figure 10.4 Meiosis and Sex Outcome Meiosis and Sex Outcome Gametes Each female egg contains One X chromosome Each male sperm contains One X, or One Y Male parent dictates gender of offspring Egg fertilized by Sperm with a Y chromosome Offspring will be male Sperm with an X chromosome Offspring will be female Egg with X + sperm with X = XX = female Egg with X + sperm with Y = XY = male 9
10 10.5 Gamete Formation in Humans Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis Male germ cell formation Spermatogonia - Diploid - become: More spermatogonia Primary spermatocytes» Undergo meiosis I spermatogonium» Become secondary spermatocytes 1. The diploid spermatogonium cell produces a primary spermatocyte. Spermatogenesis Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis (continued) Male germ cell formation Secondary spermatocytes Now TWO haploid cells 1. Undergo meiosis II Become spermatids» Now FOUR haploid cells» Develop into spermatozoa 2. The diploid spermatogonium cell produces a primary spermatocyte. The primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis I, yielding two haploid secondary spermatocytes. spermatogonium primary spermatocyte Spermatogenesis secondary spermatocytes primary spermatocyte 2. The primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis I, yielding two haploid secondary spermatocytes. 3. The secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II, yielding four haploid spermatids, which will develop into mature sperm cells. spermatids I secondary spermatocytes 10
11 Egg Formation Oogenesis Female germ cell formation Oogonium No longer produced after seven months gestation Develops into primary oocyte Undergoes meiosis I Now TWO haploid cells Only ONE becomes secondary oocyte» Second cell becomes polar body» Due to unequal of cell polar body Oogenesis oogonium primary oocyte secondary oocyte Before the birth of the female, a cell called an oogonium develops into a primary oocyte; this cell enters meiosis I, but remains there until it matures in the female ovary, beginning at puberty. On average, one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I. In this process, an unequal meiotic of cellular material leads to the production of one polar body and one secondary oocyte, which enters into meiosis II. Egg Formation Oogenesis Oogenesis (continued) One secondary oocyte Will not complete meiosis II Until fertilized by sperm Upon fertilization meiosis II is completed Results in:» ONE egg» THREE polar bodies I polar body polar bodies (will be degraded) oogonium 1. Before the birth of the female, a cell called an oogonium develops into a primary oocyte; this cell enters meiosis I, but remains there until it primary matures in the female oocyte ovary, beginning at puberty. 2. On average, one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I. In this process, an unequal meiotic of cellular material leads to secondary the production of one oocyte polar body and one secondary oocyte, which enters into meiosis II. 3. Only secondary oocytes that are fertilized by sperm will complete meiosis II and develop into an egg. The three polar bodies that are produced by meiosis I and II will be degraded. egg Egg Formation Egg Formation The vast majority of primary oocytes never complete meiosis, however. It is only the single primary oocyte released each month, in the process of ovulation, that completes meiosis I. Only those ovulated oocytes that are fertilized by sperm complete meiosis II. Only one of the cells produced in meiosis will have the potential to develop into a haploid egg. 11
12 Sperm and Egg Formation Spermatogenesis Oogenesis spermatogonium 1. The diploid spermatogonium cell produces a primary spermatocyte. primary spermatocyte oogonium 1. Before the birth of the female, a cell called an oogonium develops into a primary oocyte; this cell enters meiosis I, but primary remains there until it oocyte matures in the female ovary, beginning at puberty Life Cycles: Humans and Other Organisms 2. The primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis I, yielding two haploid secondary spermatocytes. secondary spermatocytes 3. The secondary spermatocytes go through meiosis II, yielding four haploid spermatids, which will develop into mature sperm cells. spermatids polar body I polar bodies (will be degraded) 2. On average, one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I. In this process, an unequal meiotic of cellular material leads to secondary the production of one oocyte polar body and one secondary oocyte, which enters into meiosis II. 3. Only secondary oocytes that are fertilized by sperm will complete meiosis II and develop into an egg. The three polar bodies that are produced by meiosis I and II will be degraded. egg Figure 10.6 Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings. Reproduction Sexual reproduction Fusion of sperm and egg Not all reproduction is sexual Asexual reproduction can take several forms: binary fission vegetative reproduction regeneration Most types of organisms are capable of asexual reproduction rare among more complex organisms never carried out by mammals or birds. Asexual Reproduction Binary fission Bacteria replicates its single chromosome and then divides in two cell wall chromosome cell membrane parental bacterial cell 1.Bacterial cell starts with a single, circular chromosome attached to its plasma membrane. 2.The chromosome replicates and the daughter chromosomes attach to different sites on the plasma membrane. 3.The cell membrane and wall grow an extension between the attachment points of the two chromosomes. 4.The cell wall and membrane join together in the middle, resulting in two new cells. two daughter cells 12
13 Asexual Reproduction Vegetative reproduction Whole new plants grow from pieces of parent plant Plants can do this in addition to sexual reproduction Regeneration Asexual Reproduction Worms and sea stars A new, complete organism can be formed from a portion of an existing one Similar to vegetative reproduction in plants Regeneration Gametogenesis Summary PLAY Figure Figure
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