A Comparison of Thai, Indian, Japanese, and American Parents' Views toward Parent Involvement in International Schools in Thailand

Transcription

1 Lehigh University Lehigh Preserve Theses and Dissertations 2012 A Comparison of Thai, Indian, Japanese, and American Parents' Views toward Parent Involvement in International Schools in Thailand J. Andrew Westerman Lehigh University Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Westerman, J. Andrew, "A Comparison of Thai, Indian, Japanese, and American Parents' Views toward Parent Involvement in International Schools in Thailand" (2012). Theses and Dissertations. Paper This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Lehigh Preserve. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Lehigh Preserve. For more information, please contact preserve@lehigh.edu.

2 A Comparison of Thai, Indian, Japanese, and American Parents Views toward Parent Involvement in International Schools in Thailand. by J. Andrew Westerman A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate and Research Committee of Lehigh University in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership Lehigh University Summer 2012

3 Copyright by J. Andrew Westerman 2012 ii

4 Doctor of Education Program of Study Proposed Candidate Program Concentration Major Advisor J. Andrew Westerman Educational Leadership Dr. George P. White Residency Summer, 2003 Summer, 2006 Proposal Title Special Committee A Comparison of Thai, Indian, Japanese, and American parents views toward parent involvement in international schools. Dr. George P. White Professor of Education Dr. Roger Douglass Interim Executive Director Office of International Programs Dr. Jill Sperandio Associate Professor of Education Dr. Richard Krajczar Executive Director of East Asia Regional Council Of Schools (EARCOS) Language Requirement Not Applicable Qualifying Exam July, 2004 General Exam Summer, 2005 & Spring, 2006 Previous Degrees BS, Purdue University, 1991 MS, Purdue University, 1998 Candidacy Approved December 2011 iii

5 Acknowledgements Writing a dissertation has been much more of a learning process than I had expected. It tested typical personal characteristics that many might expect like perseverance, vision, and mental agility. However, it also tested my determination, my ego, and even my marriage at times. I have learned that research requires one to rely on other peoples assistance to accomplish a task of this magnitude. While it has been both academically and personally rewarding, it has also been a humbling process. First, I would like to thank my family for their support and belief that I could accomplish this goal of completing a doctoral degree. My wife, Catherine, has been patient through changes in jobs and topics, international moves (Pakistan, Australia, Saudi Arabia, United States, and Thailand), the birth of our three children, and the loss of our youngest daughter, Charlotte Mae, when she was only 14 months old. We have bought and sold houses on two continents together and have survived much more than many couples experience in whole lifetimes in just the first ten years of our marriage. I am eternally grateful for her indulgence in such a selfish endeavor. Our daughter, Lucy Ellen, and son, Rohan Eric both also have understood when I had to work on Doctor Daddy things. I know they are already reaping rewards of our world travels and consequently are more globally minded than I ever could be. In reflecting back on how this whole process began, I must thank Rose Puffer for her help in searching for a program that suited my needs. Her support never wavered. I also would like to thank Dr. Daphne Hobson for her guidance early in my program and continued belief in my abilities. Dr. Ron Yoshida taught me how to think about tackling my topic even though I did not end up continuing with the technology angle. I appreciate iv

6 our thoughtful conversations in Jeddah. Dr. Steve Mancuso was instrumental in helping me to define my initial research questions at a chance opportunity to meet at a NESA conference in Bangkok. Finally, there are a few people who have been essential critical friends and without whose help this dissertation would be less significant. Dr. Steve Ballowe helped me define my topic and encouraged me to believe in myself. Dr. Peter Toscano listened to my ideas and helped me to reflect on them. His consistent guidance in setting targets to accomplish along the way was important in keeping to my timeline. Dr. George White has a knack for vision that comes from such varied experience. Your insights and insistence on high quality have pushed me to accomplish more than I thought possible. Dr. Laura Roberts has been one of the best teachers I have known; indeed her explanations regarding statistical measures have helped me to understand methodology better. I am indebted to her for all of her guidance and thoughtful insights. v

7 Dedication For Charlotte, who never had the chance to experience much in life, but who has given me much to think about for the rest of mine vi

8 Table of Contents Page Title Page...i Copyright Statement...ii Certificate of Approval...iii Acknowledgements...iv Dedication...vi Table of Contents...vii List of Appendices...xi List of Tables...xii List of Figures...xiv Abstract...1 Chapter I Introduction Introduction...3 Need for the Study...8 Purpose of the Study...9 Research Questions...10 Limitations of the Study...11 Definition of Terms...12 Chapter II Review of the Related Literature Introduction...16 vii

9 Parent Involvement and Student Achievement...17 Theoretical Models...20 Conceptual Framework...22 Cultural aspects of Parent Involvement...27 Research from International Perspectives...30 Chapter III Research Design and Methodology Purpose of the Study...33 Research Methods...33 Population and Sample...34 Survey Instrument...37 Pilot Study...40 Data Gathering...43 Data Analysis...47 Chapter IV Results Introduction...54 Responses...55 Response goal analysis...56 Chi-square analysis...57 Validity and Reliability of the Survey Instrument...59 Principal components analysis confirmatory factor analysis...59 Exploratory factor analysis...60 viii

10 Four component model...62 Goodness of fit tests for the ISPIS...68 Ethnic Group Analysis...70 Scaled score analysis...71 Ethnic expectations for volunteering and communication...71 Ethnic expectations for school decision-making...82 Cultural Group Analysis...85 Scaled score analysis...86 Cultural expectations for volunteering and communication...86 Cultural expectations for school decision-making...92 Focus Group Analysis...94 Focus group discussion guide...95 Text analysis...96 Important information for school leaders...99 Practices for school leaders Chapter V Discussion and Implications Introduction Purpose of the Study Population and Sample Discussion of Findings ISPIS reliability and validity Parents expectations for involvement in decision-making ix

11 Parents expectations for involvement in communication Parents expectations for involvement in volunteering Other findings Theoretical contributions Summary Recommendations for Practice Recommendations for Future Research Final Reflection References References x

12 Appendixes Appendix A: International School Parent Involvement Survey - (English. Thai, & Japanese versions) Appendix B: Calculations for the ANCOVA for Criterion Related Validity Appendix C: Pilot Study Frequency Data Tables Appendix D: Pilot Study Calculations for Reliability and Validity Statistics Appendix E: Consent Form (English, Thai, & Japanese) Appendix F: Sample Contact to Heads of School for Participation Appendix G: Letters of acceptance from Heads of School Appendix H: Sample to Heads of School to Initiate the Collection of Data. 193 Appendix I: Sample to Heads of School to Remind Parents to Participate Appendix J: Sample Final to Heads of School Appendix K: Focus Group Consent Form - (English, Thai & Japanese Versions). 199 Appendix L: Variable Analysis Appendix M: ISPIS: Frequencies of the Responses to the Demographic Questions 208 Appendix N: ISPIS: Frequencies of Responses to the Individual Factor Items Appendix O: Levene s Test of Equality of Error Variances Appendix P: Focus Group Discussion Guide Appendix Q: Color Key Western Culture Groups Appendix R: Color Key Eastern Culture Groups Appendix S: Western School 2 Transcript - Coded Appendix T: Western School 3 Transcript - Coded xi

13 Appendix U: Eastern School 2 Transcript - Coded Appendix V: Eastern School 3 Transcript - Coded Appendix W: Researcher s Vita List of Tables Table Page Table 1. Cross-Cultural Differences... 6 Table 2. Epstein s Framework of Six Types of Involvement Table 3. Sample School Nationality Returns Table 4. Research Question Data Analysis Table 5. Frequency Table Survey Responses by Language Table 6. Frequency Table Cultural and National Identity Table 7. Frequency Table Survey Responses by Culture (Western and Eastern) Table 8. Frequency Table Respondents by School Table 9. Chi-Square Analysis: Percentages of Eastern and Western Families Table 10. Pattern Matrix for the five component model with an oblimin rotation.. 61 Table 11. Pattern Matrix for the four component model (Western-culture parents) Table 12. Variance accounted for by each component Western-culture parents Table 13. Pattern Matrix for the four component model (Eastern-culture parents) Table 14. Variance accounted for by each component Eastern-culture parents Table 15. Similarities and differences in the component loadings for Western and Eastern cultures Table 16. Descriptive Statistics Communication Scale xii

14 Table 17. Between-Subjects Factors Communications Scale Table 18. Tests Mean Differences among Ethnic Groups - Communications Scale.. 73 Table 19. Multiple Comparisons Communication Scale Tukey HSD Table 20. Descriptive Statistics Social Involvement Scale Table 21. Between-Subjects Factors- Social Involvement Scale Table 22. Tests of Mean Differences among Ethnic groups Social Involvement Scale Table 23. Multiple Comparisons Social Involvement Scale Tukey HSD Table 24. Descriptive Statistics Parents Presence at School Scale Table 25. Between-Subjects Factors- Parents Presence at School Scale Table 26. Tests of Mean Differences among Ethnic Groups Parents Presence at School Scale Table 27. Multiple Comparisons Parents Presence at School Scale Tukey HSD 80 Table 28. Means for each Ethnic group from Most to Least Agreement for Communications Table 29. Means for each Ethnic group from Most to Least Agreement for Social Involvement Table 30. Means for each Ethnic group from Most to Least Agreement for Parents Presence at School Table 31. Descriptive Statistics Decision Making Scale Table 32. Between-Subjects Factors- Decision Making Scale Table 33. Tests of Mean Differences among Ethnic Groups Decision Making Scale xiii

15 Table 34. Multiple Comparisons Decision Making Tukey HSD Table 35. Means for each Ethnic group from Most to Least Agreement for Decision Making Table 36. Descriptive Statistics Communication Scale Table 37. Between-Subjects Factors Communications Scale Table 38. Tests of Mean Differences between Cultural Groups - Communications Scale Table 39. Descriptive Statistics Social Involvement Scale Table 40. Between-Subjects Factors Social Involvement Scale Table 41. Tests of Mean Differences between Cultural Groups Social Involvement Scale Table 42. Descriptive Statistics Parents Presence in School Scale Table 43. Between-Subjects Factors Parents Presence in School Scale Table 44. Tests of Mean Differences between Cultural Groups Parents Presence in School Scale Table 45. Descriptive Statistics Decision Making Scale Table 46. Between-Subjects Factors Decision Making Scale Table 47. Tests of Mean Differences between Cultural Groups - Decision Making Scale Table 48. Number of Instances of Each Theme Identified in Each Transcript List of Figures Figure Page Figure 1: Model of overlapping spheres of influence of families and schools xiv

16 Figure 2: Funnel design of the discussion guide Figure 3: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Diagram xv

17 Abstract The purpose of this study was to investigate the similarities and differences in the expectations for involvement among parents of different cultural/ethnic groups at three international schools in Bangkok, Thailand. Overall, the research in the literature has supported that parents are instrumental to their children s academic success and that parental involvement has a positive correlation with student achievement. Parent stakeholders play an important role in creating an environment conducive to teaching and learning. Successful international schools are shaped as their school leaders broaden professional experiences to build positive relationships with parents from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds. All parents who have children attending three independent international schools in Bangkok were asked to complete a survey designed to assess their views on the appropriate level of parent involvement in the school. Data were collected via a webbased survey called the International School Parent Involvement Survey (ISPIS) and responses gathered in a database for analysis. Parents then participated in focus groups to gain insight on the responses to the quantitative survey. A routine using principal components analysis was applied to the ISPIS survey data resulting in factors loading on four categories: general and academic decisionmaking, communication, social volunteering, and parents presence at school. A scaled score analysis of a nested school model was then conducted with parent involvement as the outcome variable, culture/ethnicity as the question predictors, and school as the control predictor. 1

18 International school parents expectations for involvement vary not only by ethnicity and culture, but also individually within those groups. It is important for school administrators to differentiate how they interact with parents for decision-making, communication, and volunteering. The findings of this research indicate that Eastern culture and Western culture parents differ in their expectations for involvement in decision-making: Eastern parents are slightly inclined to be involved while Western parents are slightly disinclined. Eastern and Western culture parents have similarly high expectations for communication, though American parents particularly have strong expectations. Finally, Eastern culture parents expect opportunities for interaction with other parents while at school and desire specific tasks to accomplish while Western parents seek to support the school s goals in more business or professional interactions. Recommendations for practice and for future research are made by the author. 2

19 Chapter I Introduction Parental expectations and involvement demonstrated in the decision making of international schools is a significant issue among school stakeholders (Blandford & Shaw, 2001; Hayden, 2006). Governance and school leadership require clear understandings of the relationships among and between the stakeholders of the school. Anecdotal evidence and personal experience show that parental expectations vary among different cultural groups/nationalities represented in an international school. These differences may cause misunderstandings and a breakdown in communication among and between school stakeholders. A keen understanding of various cultural or national groups within the international school helps leaders make decisions and correctly interpret the actions and expectations of parents. As an educational leader from a different cultural and national background than a majority of the parent and student populations they serve, it is prudent to gain insights into expectations of parents for their involvement in the school. The importance of cultural understanding of the school community is paramount to being an effective communicator and positive community builder in an international school. The international school scene in Bangkok, Thailand includes over 100 schools varying in age, size, curriculum, student demographics, and cost. There is fierce competition among schools and sharing information is not generally practiced. Many of the well-established schools serve upper income populations because their programs demand higher tuition costs. International schools are becoming increasingly reliant upon serving the needs of diverse constituencies due to the impact of globalization on developing countries such as 3

20 Thailand (Friedman, 2000, 2005). Parent stakeholders play an important role in creating an environment conducive to teaching and learning (Hill & Taylor, 2004). More successful international schools are shaped as their school leaders broaden professional experiences to build positive relationships with parents from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds (Hayden & Thompson, 1998). Recent research by Epstein, Galindo, and Sheldon (2011) revealed the importance of principal support in affecting the quality of school-based parent partnership programs. When different cultures have conflicting expectations regarding a topic as important as a child s education, it is vital for all stakeholders to be able to work together to establish common ground. Indeed, parents who are involved with decision-making may serve as advocates for the school throughout the community (Cotton & Wikelund, 2001; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Moreover, parental involvement has been shown to have positive effects on student attitudes and behavior. These beneficial results take into account all student populations including special needs and English language learners (Cotton & Wikelund, 2001). Furthermore, the finding of Henderson and Berla (1994) indicated that schools with high achievement levels are more open to parent and community involvement. It is my belief and experience that parental involvement, especially in school decision making, leads to better communication between school staff and parents and better understanding of each other s roles. Understanding what parents from different cultures/nationalities expect in regard to what encompasses an effective school is also a matter of interest. As parents have enrolled their children in international schools differing from their home country s educational systems, concerns also emerge about whether their children will be able to 4

21 transfer or attend tertiary institutions in their home countries. One would believe that given different cultural experiences, Asian families and Western families would have different needs; for instance, many Asian parents fear their children will fall behind the national standards of the home country (Hall, 2005). Others worry that their specific needs or expectations are not addressed by an international school with regard to academics. The opportunity to get clarification on these parents expectations may garner a better relationship that supports growth and development of the school. Comer and Haynes (1991) posit that parental participation is essential in effective schooling. The family structure provides cultural, social, and emotional validations that children need to perform well in school (DePlanty, Coulter-Kern, & Duchane, 2007). There are many variables that influence the effectiveness of schools (Coleman et al., 1997; Tatar & Horenczyk, 2000). Certainly, the relationships of the teachers, students, and parents, along with those in administration, are all intertwined. The family is the primary unit in Asian cultures. The differences in family dynamics emerge from a form of collectivism or familism (Krairiksh, 2011; Rothstein- Fisch & Trumbull, 2008). This means dominant social patterns lead to decisions that emphasize the needs of the family or society first. This requires loyalty to one s immediate and extended family. Western culture differs in that it encourages individualism and uniqueness versus conformity and interdependence. In Asian cultures, interactions with children tend to be more one-sided (i.e., adults speak to children). Social interactions also tend to avoid confrontation as it is considered disrespectful or lacking in gratitude. Less display of emotion equates to maturity and self-control. Family problems 5

22 are hidden from others and handled within the family. Table 1 shows the contrasting cultural differences for values between Western and Eastern cultures. Table 1.Cross-Cultural Differences Western Individualism Equality Independence Assertiveness Low-Power Distance Low Context Success and Achievement Eastern Collectivism Hierarchy Interdependence Uncertainty Avoidance High-Power Distance High Context Harmonious relationships (Krairiksh, 2011) In examining parental decisions to become involved in their children s education, Hoover-Dempsey and Sander (1997) discuss three constructs that are essential to parents basic involvement decisions. These decisions appear to be influenced by four factors as follows: (1) the parents role construction about what they are supposed to do in regard to their child s education, (2) the parents belief about their sense of efficacy to carry out expectations, and (3) the perception that the school wants the parents to be involved, and 4) the perception that the child wants the parent to be involved. Because of cultural differences, parents from Eastern cultures may have different constructs as to the parental role in education. Epstein and Dauber (1991) suggest that where expectations for positive involvement are an apparent part of parents roles, then they are likely to become involved to some degree. On the other hand, perhaps Asian parent groups are more conservative in their participation styles or expectations. Certainly, higher and better education is viewed as means for upward mobility among Asian culture; education is 6

23 even viewed as inheritance and outstanding achievement is the source of pride for the entire family (Krairiksh, 2011; Mathews, 2000). Hoover-Dempsey and Sander s (1997) third construct regarding the perception that the school personnel and the child desire parental involvement is an important determinant for different ethnic groups. Chavkin and Williams (1993) concluded in their work with ethnic minority parents that parents believe the school is responsible for initiating efforts and creating opportunities for parent involvement. Determining if similar beliefs exist for Asian parents in Thailand is the focus of this research. Sheldon and Epstein s (2005) research supported the idea that schools are challenged to solicit participation or involvement from all parents; especially those who cannot read or understand English [so that they] have access to the information in languages or forms they can understand (p. 197). Some parents may be reluctant to get involved at school due to a number of factors (Epstein, 1995). These factors include language barriers and a lack of understanding regarding an American-based curriculum (Krairiksh, 2011; Tinkler, 2002; Wong & Hughes, 2006). Hill and Taylor (2004) suggested that more involvement at home than at school may be especially true for those whose primary language is not English (p. 162). These language barriers are supported by other research as well (Mau, 1997; Peña, 2000). In as much as Western administrators may not understand the expectations of parents from the East, parents often lack an understanding of the school policies or expectations of a Western institution. Many parents trust the school in handling the welfare of their children as educational experts (B. B. Henderson, Marx, & Kim, 1999; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Other parents prefer to be more involved 7

24 and feel they have a right to be a part of the decisions affecting their children such as those involving classroom instruction and school governance (Bolívar & Chrispeels, 2011; Meadows, 1993). Need for the Study Numerous studies have been conducted regarding the correlation between increased parent involvement and increased student achievement (Bauch & Goldring, 1995; Cotton & Wikelund, 2001; Fan & Chen, 2001; A. T. Henderson & Berla, 1994; Jeynes, 2005a, 2005b, 2007, 2010; University of New Hampshire, 2008). It seems sensible for international school administrators to engage parental involvement when such a correlation exists with student achievement. In examining the roles of families and schools, research, theory, and practice have recognized increasingly shared and overlapping responsibilities for children s learning (Epstein & Sanders, 2002). School improvement efforts should consider how new assessments, grading systems, and other reforms may affect family involvement. Likewise, when new school initiatives are considered and implemented, families should be able to ask questions and offer suggestions that may help them assist their children adjust to and thrive in the new programs (Comer & Haynes, 1991; Epstein & Sanders, 2002). School leaders who safeguard parental involvement in school improvement efforts strengthen partnerships. These partnerships are essential to the health of the overall school community and the success of individual students (Christenson, Palan, & Scullin, 2009). Parental involvement have been positively correlated for students to improved attitude toward school or toward particular subject areas, positive self-concept, improved classroom behavior, more time spent on homework, higher expectations for one s future, 8

25 reduced absenteeism, increased motivation, and lower retention rates (Cotton & Wikelund, 2001). Though no research has linked parental involvement in school decision-making causally to student achievement (Cotton & Wikelund, 2001), other benefits emerge such as the elimination of mistaken assumptions parents and school employees may hold about one another s motives, attitudes, intentions and abilities. Indeed, a potential benefit for school leaders is the increase in parents who serve as supporters of the school throughout the community. School personnel gain from the improved rapport that commonly accompanies increased parent involvement. Moreover, school leaders need to understand the cultural norms and expectations of foreign parents on their school involvement. The expected means of enlisting parental involvement and engagement may be different when taking into consideration different cultures/nationalities. Because of the paucity of research on cultural group/nationality differences for international school parental expectations, the results of this study may serve as a guide for educational practitioners posted in international schools. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the similarities and differences in the expectations for involvement among parents of different cultural/ethnic groups at three international schools in Bangkok, Thailand. This study also examined parent expectations for what constitutes an effective international school. The data analyzed from this research guides international school principals and heads of school to engage parents from different cultures/nationalities in an appropriate manner. 9

26 Research Questions The following research questions guided this study: (1) What is the psychometric validity and reliability of the International School Parent Involvement Survey (ISPIS)? (2) Do parents of different specific ethnic groups (American, Thai, Indian, and Japanese) at three International Schools in Thailand have different expectations with regard to involvement (volunteering and communication) in school? (3) What are the differences in parental expectations of involvement in school decision-making (general and academic) between specific ethnic groups (American, Thai, Indian, and Japanese) at three International Schools in Thailand? (4) Is there a difference between Eastern and Western cultures with regard to expectations of involvement (volunteering and communication) in International Schools in Thailand? (5) What are the differences in parental expectations of involvement in school decision-making (general and academic) between Eastern and Western cultures at three International Schools in Thailand? (6) What information regarding variation in expectations for parents in Eastern versus Western cultures is important to school leaders? (7) What practices can school leaders utilize to serve better the needs of their Eastern and Western culture constituents (parents)? 10

27 Limitations of the Study A limitation for this study is the ability to generalize results to other international schools due to the variation in percentage of parents from varied ethnic backgrounds in individual schools, though involvement of three schools attempts to increase generalizability. Majority populations may influence the expectations of minority populations in schools where one nationality or culture dominates (i.e., Thai nationality at two of the international schools). The cost of tuition to attend international schools is often quite high and as such, most parents of these students tend to be well educated, successful professionals who expect their children to excel in school (Harvey, as cited in Gillies, 2001). Consequently, this study will not represent all the socio-economic levels present in the populace. Finally, parents to be included in this study have been exposed to international school environments differing from their home country school systems, which may affect their expectations. In addition, some cultural groups are reluctant to share their opinions on their child s educational institution for fear of reprisals, or out of respect for the interviewer. It should also be noted that I am a white American male and a principal at one of the schools included in this research study. I am also a parent of two children who attend the elementary school in which I am employed. Given this background, it is logical that I am coming from a Western perspective, and testing that the ideas are valid for an Eastern cultural population. Another limitation is that the Western culture sample for this research consisted overwhelmingly of Americans. While most Americans are Western from a cultural perspective, not all Westerners are American. 11

28 Definition of Terms The following definitions are provided to clarify the terminology in the context of this study: Eastern Culture This refers very broadly to the various cultures or social structures and philosophical systems of "the East" geographically these are namely in Asia: the Indian subcontinent, South-East Asia, and the Far East and includes individuals selecting the Thai, Indian, or Japanese category for the ethnicity survey item in this study. Western culture This refers very broadly to the various cultures or social structures and philosophical systems of "the West" geographically these are namely Western Europe, North America, and Australia/New Zealand and includes individuals selecting the American, Canadian, UK, Australian, and New Zealander categories for the Cultural/ethnic identity survey item. Effective school For the purpose of this study, key characteristics of effective schools include the following: strong leadership, a positive learning environment, high expectations, order, structured teaching, and school leaders and teachers have positive relationships with students and with parents and communities (Blair, 2002). This study focuses on the positive relationships with parents. International Schools For the purpose of this study, international schools may be defined as private schools established to follow US standards of practice that are referred to as American overseas schools or international schools (Gillies, 2001, p. 395). Gillies (2001) goes on to describe these schools student bodies as compris[ing] the dependent children of U.S. government employees, children of other resident U.S 12

29 citizens, members of diplomatic families from various nations, dependents of the international business community, and host-country children (p. 395). The Accrediting Commission for Schools, Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC), recognizes the American/ International School as being one in which: 1. The basic language of instruction is English. 2. The school is accredited, or eligible for accreditation, by one of the regional accrediting associations. 3. The course of study, as well as marking, grading and reporting procedures, facilitates student and faculty transfer to other schools of a similar type in other countries and within the United States. 4. The school administration and governing body are responsive to the needs of their immediate user community meaning students, parents, and faculty. 5. The curriculum is similar to that commonly found in the United States and generally meets the minimum requirements for admission to North American and other worldwide English-speaking colleges and universities. 6. The student body is oriented toward programs commonly found in the United States and other English-speaking countries, including those of an extracurricular or co-curricular nature. 7. Programs of studies include courses dealing with the history, culture, and language of the host country, in addition to those that are clearly North American. 8. The school s governing body is not subordinated solely to a national government or a central ministry, but is a local entity responsive to the needs of the users of the school. 9. The stated philosophy of the school indicates a flexibility and responsiveness to the wishes of its users and contains procedures for participation by those users to effect changes in the school s program (Western Association for Schools and Colleges, 2009, p. 4). Governance The decision-making, policy-making, objective setting, and exercise of authority in an organization, institution, or agency. This includes administrative or management functions to the extent that they relate to the execution of policy and authority (e.g., involving parents in school decision-making). These roles may include but are not limited to being a participant on an advisory committee or school improvement council, an active member of the Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) or on the school board (Cotton & Wikelund, 2001). 13

30 Parental expectations A set of beliefs, underlying assumptions, and aspirations that relate to, but are not limited to, the relationship of the students to the faculty, curriculum, discipline, extracurricular programs, decision-making, and family composition. These beliefs and assumptions will motivate a parent to a particular behavior pattern (Kaplan, Liu, & Kaplan, 2001). Parents For the purpose of this study, the term parent refers to a person who has guardianship of a child enrolled as a current student at an international school involved in this study (Carden, 2005). Parental involvement Parental involvement can be defined broadly as parental participation in the educational processes and experiences of their children, where families participate in decision-making roles in their children s educational programs, administration or school management (Daniel, 2011; Jeynes, 2005a, 2007). In this study, the phrase also refers to Epstein s (Epstein, 1987a, 1995; Epstein & Sanders, 2002; Fan & Chen, 2001) work on parental involvement in their children s education. She identified six types of education-related opportunities for parental involvement: (1) Parenting helping parents to establish home environments that support children as students and helping schools understand families. (2) Communicating designing and conducting effective forms of two-way communication about school programs and children s progress. (3) Volunteering recruiting and organizing help and support for classrooms, school functions, and student activities. 14

31 (4) Learning at Home providing information, ideas and opportunities to parents about how to help students at home with academic decisions, homework and curriculum related activities. (5) Decision-Making involving parents in various aspects of school governance (6) Collaborating with Community strengthen and support schools, students and their parents, and from schools, parents and students to support the community 15

32 Chapter II Review of the Related Literature Introduction The literature on parent involvement is considerable. Research on parent involvement has identified five recurring themes (Christenson, Rounds, & Gorney, 1992). The first theme involves the notion that all parents want their children to be successful in school, but they did not know how to help their children (Epstein, 1986). Second, parent involvement includes both home and school-based activities. Due to family structures and work commitments, parents are more available for activities at home than during the school day (Epstein, 1987c). The third premise from research shows that parents are more likely to be involved if they believe their input will make a difference in achievement for their children (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997; Rich, 1987). A fourth recurring theme is that the efforts of the school to involve parents are more influential than parent income or education levels (Griffith, 1996; Jeynes, 2005a, 2005b, 2007). Finally, the fifth topic is that there is communal responsibility for student learning, referred to as collaboration between the school and family, which, is essential for success of all students (Epstein, 1987b; A. T. Henderson & Berla, 1994; Stiles, 1992). While the literature covers a broad range of parental involvement ideas, the emphasis of this literature review focuses on parent involvement and student achievement as an impetus to garner parental involvement in international schools. As the following review shows, parental involvement has been correlated with improved student achievement. This foundation is the basis for seeking to understand the expectations of international school parents in regard to their involvement at school. 16

33 Parent School Involvement and Student Achievement The quantity of literature correlating improved student academic performance when parents are involved continues to expand (Christenson, et al., 1992; Epstein, 1991; Fan & Chen, 2001; Grolnick & Slowiaczek, 1994; A. T. Henderson & Berla, 1994; Jeynes, 2003, 2005a, 2007; Ma & Klinger, 2000; Sheldon & Epstein, 2005; Singh et al., 1995; Stewart, 2008; Villas-Boas, 1998). Conventionally, parental involvement has included attendance at teacher conferences and involvement in school activities, such as open houses and social activities. Overall, the research has supported that parents are instrumental to their children s academic success and that parental involvement has a positive correlation with student achievement. In a recent study examining the mechanisms that explain the association between parent involvement and student academic performance, Topor, Keane, Shelton, and Calkins (2010) hypothesized that parents who have a positive attitude toward their child s education, school, and teacher are able to positively influence their child s academic performance through two mechanisms. These mechanisms involve engaging with the child to increase the child s self-perception of cognitive competence and by engaging with the teacher and school to promote a stronger and more positive student-teacher relationship. Their results showed that, taken together, perceived cognitive competence and the student-teacher relationship fully mediate the link between parent involvement and academic performance. These findings demonstrate that increased parent involvement has been significantly related to both higher achievement test scores and increased academic performance. The discussion noted that administrators and policy makers should continue to investigate ways to increase a parent s positive attitude about their child s education and demonstrate to 17

34 parents that their attitude is related to their child s academic performance (p. 194). As attitude toward school may be a factor in parental expectations for involvement, it is logical to cultivate positive attitudes among parents toward school. These attitudes, of course, may be affected by cultural expectations and must be investigated to determine if differences indeed exist among parents regarding expectations. Jeynes (2005a, 2005b, 2007, 2010) conducted several meta-analyses involving parental involvement; one each for urban elementary and secondary student academic achievement and another reviewing more subtle aspects of parental involvement. In these studies, he summarized 93 studies involving over 300,000 students. For elementary students, greater parent involvement was linked to higher student achievement, with an effect size of.75 SD (2005a). On the whole, secondary school level results show greater parental involvement predicts higher scores for all academic variables with an effect size of.55 of a SD (2007). For standard deviation units,.7 is considered a large effect,.5 is considered medium, and.3 is considered small. These findings held up for children of all races in the sample, for boys and girls, and for children at each SES level in the sample. The results of these meta-analyses show that student academic achievement correlates positively with increased parental involvement. Other research shows that the type of involvement must be considered to understand the influence of parental involvement on student achievement (DePlanty, et al., 2007; Jeynes, 2011). For example, researchers must consider whether involvement means involvement at school vs. involvement at home. Or does involvement mean parental aspirations for their children s achievement? Or does involvement mean communication between parents and children? Or does involvement mean parental style? 18

35 Because of these uncertainties, this research defines parental involvement using Epstein s (1995) typologies described later in this chapter. Barge and Loges (2003) described how perceptions among parents, students, and teachers influence academic success. The development of relationships between teachers and parents emerged as an important aspect of the research. Four themes characterized parental involvement in this study: (1) monitoring student academic progress, (2) cultivating personal relationships with teachers, (3) utilizing extracurricular school programs, and (4) developing community support systems. While these themes depart from Epstein s (1995) typologies (discussed later in this section), Barge and Loges casestudy emphasizes relationships rather than Epstein s parents roles in the home, communication, and participation at school as volunteers in classrooms and on committees. However, encouragement and monitoring of students academic progress through relationships with teachers and children supports Jeynes (2010, 2011) line of reasoning about subtle features of parental involvement. Recommendations for future research made by Fan and Chen (2001) emphasized the operational definition and measurement of parental involvement. Indeed, the suggestion was made to separate the different dimensions of parental involvement rather than being summed up in a general composite. Baker and Soden (2005) suggested that parents be included in the development of measures and protocols as a mechanism for obtaining valuable input. Socio status (SES) was also linked to increased parental involvement in schools (Fan & Chen, 2001; Sheldon, 2002). From this research literature, it is clear that parental involvement in education reveals myriad benefits for students in regard to achievement and more in school. Cotton 19

36 and Wikelund (2001) listed positive effects on student achievement, student attitude and behavior. They also found in their review of the literature that involving parents in decision-making showed benefits for relationships among parents and school personnel, the emergence of parents as resources, and school advocacy in the community. Later findings by Topor, et al. (2010) showed that parental involvement may become a potent influence on school and academic policies that have a direct influence on their child s school activities and academic success. By establishing associations with school administrators through involvement in parent-school organizations, parents may influence policy and monitor the functioning of their child, teachers, and administrators. Through this type of involvement, parents show that they value education and academic achievement. While the mechanisms and the subtle natures of the types of involvement need more research, it seems a prudent course for administrators to pursue increased parental involvement in international schools as it is positively correlated with student achievement. Theoretical Models Until the development of several theoretical frameworks by Epstein (1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1995), Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (Green, Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, & Sandler, 2007; 1997), and Chrispeels (1996) research has been somewhat fragmented. These last two frameworks are described briefly in reverse order here before finally describing Epstein s model in more detail. In 1996, Chrispeels described a framework for parent involvement that brought the ideas of effective family practices together with research on effective schools. In this juxtaposition, with a partnership mentality, school leaders can focus on strategies that 20

37 bolster student learning both at home and at school. These efforts build compelling alliances between schools and parents that eventually involves the whole community (Chrispeels & Rivero, 2001). Her five types of involvement include: (1) two-way communication, (2) support of the child, family, and the school, (3) learning about each other and how to work together, (4) sharing teaching responsibilities, and (5) collaborating in decision-making and advocacy. This model was examined and rejected for this research as it focused on partnerships with parents to provide a more supportive learning environment at home. While this partnership is worthwhile, it does not lend itself as easily to answering the research questions of this study. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler s (1995, 1997) model for parental involvement is influenced by psychological theory to understand why parents become involved. This motivational model has three questions to anchor whether, in an additive sense, parents become involved: (1) parents role-construction includes participation in their child s education, (2) parents sense of efficacy provides for a positive perception that they can help their child succeed through involvement, and (3) parents perceptions for opportunities or demands that the school and their child want them to be involved. This model comes closer to addressing my research questions as the decision to become involved may indeed be moored in culture. However, the model was rejected as a basis for my study because my research questions sought to determine what differences exist between different cultures in regard to expectations for involvement. The Hoover- Dempsey and Sandler model could be used as a basis to study how Western-trained administrators could use this knowledge to engage parents from Eastern culture, but this was not my focus for this study. 21

38 Conceptual Framework Epstein s (1987b) model of overlapping family and school spheres will be used as the conceptual framework of this study (see Figure 1). In this model, three forces control the degree of overlap: time, experience in families, and experience in schools. Time moves in one direction and refers to age and grade level of the child in school. The spheres typically show less overlap in infancy, but slowly merge as children begin formal schooling. Depending on the time period in school, one could expect the overlap to increase and decrease. Generally, the most overlap shows in preschool and early elementary school. This overlap, however, depends upon the two other forces, experience in families and experience in schools. These forces represent the pressures placed on family and school organizations by one another. They push and pull the spheres, changing the degree of overlap. When parents maintain or increase interest and involvement in their children s schooling (Force B), they create greater overlap of the family and school spheres than would be expected on the average. When teachers make parents part of their regular teaching practice (Force C), they create greater overlap than would typically be expected (p. 128). These forces (B and C) illustrate the influence parents and schools have on children, taking into account the history, development, and the changing experiences of parents, teachers, and students. The model goes further to explain the interpersonal relationships within and between organizations. There are two levels of interaction at work here one between organizations (family and school) and the other between individuals (parent and teacher). 22

39 Figure 1: Model of overlapping spheres of influence of families and schools Family School f F S s Force B c C c Force C Experience/ Philosophy of Family p P T t Experience/ Philosophy of School Force A Time / Age / Grade Level Key: Intra-institutional interactions (lower case) Inter-institutional interactions (upper case) f/f = Family s/s = School c/c = Child p/p = Parent t/t = Teacher (Epstein, 1987b, p. 127) Examples for Family (F) and School (S) interactions might include communication from the school to all parents regarding parent-teacher organizations, policies, or available workshops or volunteer opportunities. Examples of Parent (P) and Teacher (T) interactions include parent-teacher conferences, communications regarding 23