United States History

Transcription

1 United States History

2 Table of Contents Colonial America ( )..3 American Revolution ( ).11 A New Nation and the War of 1812 ( ) 16 Regional Differences and Expansion ( ).22 The American Civil War ( ) 31 Industrialism, Expansion, and Immigration ( ) 44 Progressivism and the coming of WWI ( ) 52 World War I ( )..57 The Roaring 20 s ( )..69 The Great Depression and World War II ( ) 73 The Cold War ( )..91 Civil Rights ( ) 100 Modern America (1970-present).104 Terrorism..107 Appendix 109 2

3 Colonial America 1492-Columbus sailed to America 1521-Cortez defeated the Aztecs 1532-Pizarro defeated the Inca 1565-Spanish found St. Augustine (FL) 1588-The Spanish Armada was defeated in the Atlantic 1607-Jamestown founded under John Smith 1619-The first slave ship landed at Jamestown 1620-The Plymouth Colony was established 1630-The Massachusetts Bay Colony founded 1676-Bacon s Rebellion 1681-Pennsylvania settled 1692-Salem Witch Trials 1718-Meeting of colonial delegates 1740 s-first Great Awakening French and Indian War Prelude to a Revolution: The Great Awakening: The Great Powers of Europe extended their power around the globe during the Age of Discovery. New techniques in ship building, navigation, and weaponry allowed the nations of Spain, France, England, the Dutch (although they had a very limited role in westward expansion), and Portugal to expand their influence across the oceans through exploration and colonization. Different countries had different motives for this expansion. The crowned heads of Europe sought access to raw materials, a sea route to the Far East, mineral wealth in the form of gold and silver, the prestige of extensive empires abroad, and they wanted to spread the word of Christianity to the far flung corners of the Earth. The race to colonize was yet another arena in which the first rate countries in Europe could compete. The first contacts in the New World were in the islands of the Caribbean Sea following the voyages of Christopher Columbus between 1492 and From there, Spain and Portugal led the way in staking their claim to these new lands. In 1494, the two Iberian nations signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, which divided South America into two spheres of influence. Basically, Portugal received what is now known as Brazil and Spain got the rest. The others countries of Europe scrambled to catch up. North America was divided between France (modern day Canada), Spain (Florida and the southwest states), and England (along the eastern seaboard from Maine to Georgia). The goal became establishment of permanent settlements that would remain loyal to the mother country. In the case of the Spanish especially, these settlements took the form of military outposts, while Britain and France attempted to build cities based economically on local natural resources like fur, timber, agriculture, or fishing. The British government awarded trade contracts to charter companies and supported them with naval assets. The profit motive for these private companies was an early 3

4 form of economic capitalism, known as mercantilism. Because the British form of colonization was based on setting up businesses, the character of the crown colonies looked different than the structure of the other powers. British colonists moved with their families to the New World, mixing less with the native population. Also, the colonies had limited local government. This is probably one of the contributing factors to the fact that once independence was achieved, democracy has been more successful in the United States than in the other nations that threw off Europe s yoke. Some famous examples of the companies involved in this trade were; the Hudson Bay Company, the Massachusetts Bay Company, the Virginia Company, and the East India Company. Early encounters with the native inhabitants had mixed results. Some of the Indian tribes welcomed the newcomers while others defended their land more aggressively. Misunderstandings were common however, and soon the new settlers were viewed with fear, suspicion, and contempt by many of the tribes. Some colonies were abandoned after a short time while others scraped out a living in the new land. The oldest of the settlements in North America which remains today is St. Augustine, Florida, founded by the Spanish in An ongoing mystery surrounds the British colony at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. The British established the Roanoke outpost in Because of war with Spain (a separate story connected to this is the destruction of the Armada in 1588), re-supply was delayed until When a British ship returned with supplies, not a soul could be found to relate what happened at the now empty colony. Probably, the settlers met a violent end due a dispute with one of the local tribes. After the founding of Jamestown in 1607, there began a steady pattern of European migration to North America. The Native Americans who first encountered these Caucasians were often helpful to the newcomers in their attempts to make a stand in the New World. British colonies on the Atlantic seaboard spread south to north from Georgia to Massachusetts (the Massachusetts colony actually included modern day Maine). The English used their colonial possessions to extend their influence around the globe and to garner natural resources offered by other lands. Competing for overseas holdings with the British in North America were the French (with whom the Brits competed for everything) and the Spanish. From those early days of simple subsistence, the colonies were able to gain a solid foothold on the continent, which, as it turns out, was permanent. Colonization was accompanied by its share of violence as well. Some tribes resisted the incursion by European settlers, resulting in conflict between the races. But since European trade was beneficial to the tribes, white settlement also cause a great many battles between the tribes themselves with the goal of being the exclusive supplier of goods to the newcomers. Often tribes allied with one European power against another with their own local allies. Some of the more notable wars of the colonial period include; The Pequot War ( ), The Iroquois Beaver War ( ), King Phillips War ( ), The Tuscarora War ( ). These were brutal wars usually, with wild atrocities committed by all belligerents, and the great losers ended up being the Indians. Late in the colonial period, some tribes banded together to 4

5 stem the ever increasing tide of European expansion, but it was too late. The pattern is easy to trace; European technology and especially diseases overwhelmed the natives and the westward push was unstoppable. As the major cities in the New World developed, some turned into important trading ports and centers of commerce. New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston became modern cities by the early 1700 s. These colonists did not waver in their loyalty to the crown, especially for the first one hundred fifty years. Until about 1750, these people considered themselves subjects of the king and under his protection. That started to change in the middle of the 18 th Century. There grew a tide of opposition to the monarchy among the elite, educated colonists who believed that many of their God-given rights were not being supported by the crown. It did not take long for this dissatisfaction to grow into a revolution that changed the world. The seeds of the American Revolution were sown in the concepts of the Enlightenment, which placed the value of the individual at a premium. It is interesting that organized religion, normally very conservative institutions, contributed greatly to the liberal experiment in democracy. The Great Awakening of the 1740 s was a movement by ordinary citizens to re-establish connections to regular religion. These people sought meaning in life through a return to formal religion. This impacted future events in two significant ways. First individual churches sponsored colleges which taught the concepts of the Enlightenment which was heavily influenced by the writings of John Locke. In the Natural Rights of Man, Locke contended that man was born to be free and if a government infringes on that natural right then the citizens had a right and even a duty to rebel against it. In addition, regular gatherings at church events gave the inhabitants a forum in which to discuss the ideas and news of the day. America s first institutions of higher learning were founded prior to the revolution: New College (Harvard)-1636, William and Mary-1693, Collegiate School (Yale)-1701, College of New Jersey (Princeton)-1740, King s College (Columbia)-1754, College of Philadelphia (Penn)-1740, King s College (Columbia)-1754, Rhode Island College (Brown)-1764, Queens College (Rutgers)-1766, and Dartmouth

6 The French-Indian War: As mentioned, France and England had a long-standing rivalry that began on the European continent and extended to colonial possessions. France had established itself as the preeminent force in Northern North America (now Canada), which they called New France. France s primary motive for colonial possessions was fur trade, while the British were more interested in acquiring land and populating it with loyal subjects. This rivalry led to the French and Indian War. There were several alliances during the conflict. The Iroquois Confederation (including the Onondaga, Seneca, Cayuga, Mohawk, and Oneida tribes) of Native Americans traded extensively with the British and this created a natural bond. The Spanish, who still had influence in the region (more directly in Florida and Central and South America), also sided with the French. Allied with the French were the colonists and the Huron, enemies of the Iroquois. In the early conduct of the war; the British fared very poorly, being routed by the French and their allies in the west. A loyal young colonial officer, 32-year-old Colonel George Washington helped rally forces on behalf of Britain after the death of General Edward Braddock at the Battle of Monongahela. After some initial setbacks, however, the British sent a 50,000-man army to stabilize the situation. This was the largest military force to appear in North America to that time. The French were defeated after a war that lasted from 1754 to It culminated with the Treaty of Paris, which established Great Britain as the major power in North America. There were also some subtle consequences of the conflict. First, the American colonists no longer viewed the British as an invincible fighting force. They had seen the Brits run from battle, especially in the beginning of the war. Secondly, and probably of greater consequence, Great Britain incurred huge debts as a result of the war. The King felt that since his army was fighting to secure territory in North America and therefore benefit the colonists, then they should be willing to help pay for it. The colonists, on the other hand, felt that they had proven their loyalty to the crown and should not be burdened with the debt left over from the King s war. In these two viewpoints lay the seeds of revolution. 6

7 The Road to Revolution: Relations between the colonists and the crown continued to deteriorate following the end of the French and Indian War. Following the Treaty of Paris (1763), the British and the colonists held very different views of how the colonies should be governed and taxed. There were a series of laws and incidents that pulled both sides into war. At issue in particular was financing the debt left over from the French and Indian War. The king felt that British troops were protecting the interests of colonists so the colonists should bear a large share of the cost. The colonists, who fought for the British, believed that they were protecting the frontier of the empire so it was a double imposition for them to bear the brunt of the economic cost of the conflict. Great Britain s frustration with imposing taxes in the colonies started in 1733 with the Molasses Act of This was a tax on molasses, rum, and sugar. Colonial smugglers who shipped these goods to the East Indies without paying taxes hurt Great Britain s wartime budget. In 1760 Governor Bernard of Massachusetts began issuing writs of assistance (search warrants) to go aboard ships he thought might be smuggling goods. The colonists began protesting these writs in town meetings. These writs expanded into private homes and further upset the colonists (even some British at home) that their rights were not being protected. James Otis took this case to court and eventually lost. Otis, however, set the cornerstone to the American Revolution by taking this case to court. He made known that Great Britain s constitution was an unwritten document and therefore an abstract object. Otis s main point was brilliant. Otis' primary argument in front of Great Britain s Supreme Court centered on the growing sentiment in the colonies that even Parliament could not infringe on certain basic rights that stood at the core of the Constitution ( the rights of Englishmen ). In the years to come, the colonists continued to complain that the British government had infringed upon this set of "inalienable" rights: In 1763, the Proclamation Act was signed into law (by King George III) established a boundary (Appalachian Mountains) for westward expansion in the colonies. Great Britain established this line to keep peace with the Indians and restore order to colonial expansion. It said that the land would eventually be settled, but settlement would be directed by Great Britain. The proclamation declared that all land transactions made to the west of the Appalachian crest would be governed by the British government rather than by the colonies. The British vowed to respect Native American land rights and control colonial expansion. Any colonists living west of the Appalachian s were required to move back east. There were probably two reasons for the law from the British perspective. First, less expansion west would cause less trouble with Native Americans and second, it would be easier for the British to collect taxes and monitor colonial activity by limiting expansion. However, it did not sit well with the colonists. To them, it looked like a meddlesome intervention that was none of Britain s business. 7

8 Great Britain kept 10,000 soldiers in North America to: one to protect its new territory, two to intimidate the Indians, French, and Spanish, and three to keep control of the colonists. Great Britain also expected the Colonists to help pay for these troops to stay in North America as well. The Sugar Act of 1764 required the colonies to send their goods through Great Britain before they could be sent to other areas of the world. The act also lowered duties on the colonists, but it still did not benefit the Colonists very much. The British made the colonists fill out very complex papers to ship their goods. If these papers weren t filled out correctly their cargo could be seized. The British Navy enforced these laws very strictly and the British government made over 30,000 pounds on this act (about 1/10 of what they needed to keep their soldiers in North America). The same year a court was established in Halifax, Nova Scotia, that had jurisdiction over trade in all of the American colonies. Also in 1764 the Currency Act prohibited the colonists from issuing any legal tender paper money for which to trade with. The Colonists didn t have access to any gold or silver mines so the only way to get gold and silver was to trade with the British. This gave Great Britain control over the colonial currency system. Some colonies had previously employed the use of colonial script; however, none were backed by gold or silver. Only Pennsylvania and New York gave out notes that kept par with gold. All of the other colonies faced inflation problems. Benjamin Franklin testified to the British Board of Trade that the government should have the benefit of money creation, not banks. He argued that this would lower the tax burden on the people. This idea was completely opposite to what Great Britain did so it was shot down. Franklin believed that this was the true act that ultimately led to the American Revolution. At a town meeting in Boston James Otis raised the issue of taxation without representation and urges a united response to the recent acts imposed by England. The Stamp Act of 1765 required a payment made to Great Britain for all printed material. This is the first direct tax on the colonies meaning that they pay the tax directly to England and not to their local legislatures in the colonies. This was established to help pay for the British soldiers in the colonies. Taxed items included: newspapers, pamphlets, bills, legal documents, licenses, almanacs, dice and playing cards. This particularly enraged lawyers, publishers, land owners, ship builders and merchants. Also in 1765 the Quartering Act required colonists to house British troops and supply them with food. In May of that year, Patrick Henry presents seven Virginia Resolutions to the House of Burgesses claiming that only the Virginia assembly can legally tax Virginia residents. Up north the Sons of Liberty, an underground organization opposed to the Stamp Act, is formed in a number of colonial towns. The Sons of Liberty use violence and intimidation to eventually force all of the British stamp agents to resign. The Sons of Liberty also stopped many American merchants from ordering British trade goods. A boycott in November if 1765 caused most daily business and legal transactions to cease. Mob violence breaks out in New York City and by 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed. 8

9 Relations between the colonies and the mother country were souring quickly. In August of 1766 violence over the Quartering Act erupted in New York, as British soldiers clash with the Sons of Liberty and armed colonists. The New York Legislature refuses to comply with the quartering act and is put on suspension. In June of 1767 the Townshend Acts imposed a tax on many items imported into the colonies (this resulted in a boycott among the colonists). The taxes were to be used to offset costs for keeping up a military in the colonies. Samuel Adams writes the Circular Letter which opposed taxation without representation. It was sent throughout the colonies and told the colonists how the Massachusetts General Court is opposing the Townshend Acts. By the summer of 1768 British war ships begin landing in Boston Harbor. Two regiments of English infantry set up permanent residence in Boston. In a town meeting in Boston residents are urged to arm themselves. In 1769 the boycotting of British goods spreads throughout the colonies, and in 1770 violence erupts in New York between the Sons of Liberty and 40 British soldiers. A famous incident shows the accelerating level of violence between the two sides. On March 5 th, 1770, a protesting mob outside the governor s found themselves in a confrontation with British troops. The British fired into a crowd of colonists. Five colonists (including Crispus Attucks, a freed slave-the 1 st casualty of the American Revolution) were killed. The Royal Governor moves the troops out of Boston to harbor islands. The captain of the British soldiers was arrested but was later acquitted along with 6 of the 8 soldiers. The other 2 soldiers were branded. Ironically, Boston lawyer John Adams defended the British at trial. In an effort to appease the colonists following the violence in Boston, the Townshend and Quartering Acts were repealed in 1770, but by then revolution seemed inevitable to many. On June 9 th, 1772, The Gaspee, a British schooner ship with 8 large guns, had been harassing colonial trading and fishing vessels since The reason for the attack was provoked by the British attempt to control colonial trading (stopping smuggling) which had hurt the Rhode Island economy significantly. The Gaspee tried to stop a ship called the Hannah which refused and then ran it into shallow waters at Namquid Point in Narragansett Bay. While the ship was aground 60 armed men disguised with black smeared faces and Indian head dresses set sail and destroyed the ship. The group was led by a wealthy, religious, and well-respected man named John Brown. The crew of the Gaspee surrendered and was taken to shore. The ship was burned and the flames burned bright into the dark sky. In March of 1773, the Virginia House of Burgesses appoints an 11 member committee of correspondence to communicate with the other colonies regarding common complaints against the British. Other states begin to follow suit. More and more, the colonists began to see unity in their cause. May 10 th, 1773, the Tea Act granted the almost bankrupt East India Company (a British company) exclusive rights to the colonial market (monopoly). On December 16 th, about 8000 Bostonians gather to hear Sam Adams tell them Royal Governor Hutchinson has repeated his command not to allow the ships out of the harbor until the tea taxes are paid. That night, the Boston Tea Party occurs as colonists disguise 9

10 themselves as Mohawk Indians, then board the ships and dump all 342 containers of tea into the harbor. The shipment totaled 45 tons with a 1773 value of $20,000 (nearly $2,000,000 today). At this point, the British government reacted harshly toward the upstart colonists. In 1774 a series of laws were passed in London designed to stop the insurrection: the Intolerable Acts (also known as the Coercive Acts ) were a series of measures by the British, which included the closure of Boston Harbor and the quartering of British troops in colonial homes, the Boston Port Bill shut down all commercial shipping in Boston harbor until Massachusetts pays the taxes owed on the tea dumped in the harbor and also reimburses the East India Company for the loss of the tea, the next series of Coercive Acts included the Massachusetts Regulating Act and the Government Act that virtually ended any self-rule by the colonists there. The English Crown and the Royal governor assume political power formerly exercised by colonists. A new Quartering Act was passed as well, requiring all of the American colonies were to provide housing for British troops in occupied houses and taverns and in unoccupied buildings. From September 5 th to October 16 th, 1774 the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia with 56 delegates and representatives from every colony except Georgia. -- Patrick Henry, George Washington, Sam Adams and John Hancock were some of the most famous delegates. While the Second Continental Congress did most of the heavy lifting when the time for revolution came, the First Congress made important contributions: they stated that the Coercive Acts were not to be obeyed. The Congress also promoted the formation of local militia units. The rights of the colonists are asserted, including the rights to life, liberty and property. The First Continental Congress is probably most important because it represented the first time that nearly all the colonies gathered to create one voice in opposition to British rules and eventually British rule altogether. March 23 rd, 1775, Patrick Henry delivered his famous speech in Virginia s House of Burgesses: Give me liberty or give me death! In April 1775, Massachusetts Governor Gage is ordered to enforce the Coercive Acts and suppress "open rebellion" among the colonists by all necessary force.this led directly to the outbreak of open hostility between the colonists and the crown. British troops in search of militia arms and ammunition clashed with colonists at Lexington and a few miles down the road at Concord in the first military action of the American Revolution. The British prevailed, but found no weapons at the armory. The first shot fired at Lexington is the famous shot heard around the world. Keep in mind that the Declaration of Independence was not signed for over a year. That aside, many consider this date the beginning of the American Revolution. The thirteen original colonies that would fight for and win independence included; New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts (which included modern day Maine), Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. 10

11 The American Revolution: Elected representation had a long standing history in the colonies. The House of Burgesses, Virginia s state assembly first met in Virginia was a powerful colony in terms of wealth and political influence in fact seven of the first ten U.S. presidents were born in Virginia and it was once known as The birthplace of presidents. By the time that relations between King George III and his American subjects were beginning to sour, the colonists were ready for broader representation. In September, 1774, 56 colonial delegates convened in Philadelphia to discuss the rights of the King s subjects in America. This was the First Continental Congress. The first congress organized a boycott of British goods and set the stage for the more important Second Continental Congress. This representative body ended their work after on a few weeks, on October 21 st, On April 19 th, 1775 British troops marched to seize the armory at Concord. 70 or so militiamen on the mall at Lexington met them. Someone fired a shot (the shot heard around the world ) and the battle was on. Eight minutemen were killed and the Brits marched on to find an empty armory. On the return trip, the Redcoats were ambushed by 3,000 to 4,000 of the militia and were routed. Reserves from Boston saved many Brits. The Second Continental Congress first met on May 10 th, 1775 in response to the violence at Lexington and Concord. Unlike the first, this second assembly had a long and productive existence. The second congress operated the colonial war effort for six years, issued the Olive Branch Petition, passed the Declaration of Independence, negotiated treaties, and transformed into the Congress of the Confederation in 1781 when the Articles of Confederation were ratified as the law of the land. The Congress of Confederation served until the U.S. Congress replaced it under the auspices of the U.S. Constitution in The great trivia stumper is: Who was the first president of the United States. While everyone will yell George Washington, technically Washington was eighth. The Congress of the Confederation elected 7 one year, one term executives prior to G. Washington s ascension to the top post under the U.S. Constitution. That list includes; John Hanson, Elias Boudinot, Thomas Mifflin, Richard Henry Lee (great uncle to Robert E. Lee of Civil War fame), Nathan Gorman, Arthur St. Clair, and Cyrus Griffin. In 1787, the Second Continental Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance, defining the process by which new states were and are admitted to the Union. However, with liberty secured, the Articles of Confederation proved too weak at the national level for a young country bound for expansion, so a Constitutional Convention was convened in 1785 to revise it. Instead, the delegates secretly started over and created the U.S Constitution back to the war On June 17 th, 1775, British General Thomas Gage sent 2400 troops from Boston to attack a colonial force dug in on Breed s Hill, north of the city. The British took the hill with heavy casualties (311 colonists to over 1,000 Brit casualties). This misnamed battle of Bunker Hill (the battle was fought primarily on Breed s Hill) made Gage hesitant to attack entrenched positions throughout the rest of the war. 11

12 The Second Continental Congress met in May of Debate raged as to the course of action the colonists should follow. John Adams, a lawyer from Boston, argued for immediate separation. In July, congress issued the Olive Branch Petition, asking for a return to the former state of relations with England. King George III rejected the petition and said the colonies were in rebellion and needed to be put down. The British imposed naval blockade on the colonies. Common Sense was published (Thomas Paine) in early 1776 and sold over 500,000 copies (100,000 within a few months). This 47-page pamphlet brought the argument for freedom down to the common man s level and fanned the fire for revolution. In May of 1776, North Carolina declared independence. Thomas Jefferson (Virginia Lawyer) was selected to write the Declaration of Independence: All men are created equal, endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights (very much the notions of John Locke). On 7/2/76, it was presented to Continental Congress but not accepted. Jefferson made two major revisions. Omitted was one part containing a blasting of the British people and more importantly South Carolina and Georgia rejected an attack on the institution of slavery. The revised version, with which we are familiar, was signed on 7/4/76. There is room for debate as to when the war actually began. A case can be made that it started at Lexington (4/19/75), or at Breed s Hill (6/17/75). Some would say that the Declaration of Independence began hostilities. In any case, by July 4 th, 1776 the war is on. At the beginning of the conflict, each side had three strategies designed to gain the advantage. The British wanted to 1) blockade American ports, 2) control northern cities like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, and 3) defeat the Continental Army in a decisive battle. The colonists plan included: 1) Preserve their inferior army, 2) gain a foreign ally (most likely France), and 3) break the will of the British people to continue the fight. Choosing sides: The colonies were not unanimously in favor of revolution. Revolutionaries (Patriots) included merchants, farmers, immigrants, and Quakers (although they don t fight). Loyalists (Tories) include government officials and some intellectuals who believed revolution is too radical. Most sided with their vested interest, as is the case in most historical events. Early on, the Brits intended to break up the troublemakers in New England (esp. Boston), and then they decided to attack New York and split the colonies to isolate New England. General William Howe sailed (with his brother Admiral Richard Howe s fleet) into New York with 32,000 troops including a few thousand German Mercenaries (Hessians). George Washington rallied 23,000 poorly equipped and trained troops to defend the city, but they were pushed back into Pennsylvania. The confident British captured New York City. Washington needed a moral victory, and on Christmas night of 76, he rowed across the Delaware with 2,400 men and defeated the British, capturing 918 prisoners. 12

13 On January 3 rd, 1777, Washington won another battle at Princeton, NJ. This gave the colonists momentum for the moment. Howe decided to attack the capital (Philadelphia) and chase Congress from the city following victory at the Battle of Brandywine Creek. Pressing the advantage, British general Gentleman Johnny Burgoyne marched north, but was defeated at the Battle of Saratoga on October 17 th, 1777 by colonial General Horatio Gates. There were two sub-battles at Saratoga, the Battle of Freeman s Farm and the Battle of Bemis Heights. Saratoga is where Benedict Arnold rose to prominence as a revolutionary hero for a time. Arnold later became the symbol of treason when he tried to betray the American fort at West Point to the British. The plot was uncovered; Arnold joined the British and his confederate Major John Andre was hanged as a spy by the Continental Army. This is considered by many to be the turning point in the war. At that point, France openly supported the American cause, although it would take some time before the French were able to lend any material assistance. Momentum was once again on the side of the Revolutionaries, but that too would soon change. The winter of was brutal as Washington and more than 10,000 men encamped at Valley Forge, PA. Low on supplies and shelter, the army struggled to even survive. Over 2,000 men froze or starved to death. However, drilled by Prussian officer Baron Friedrich Von Steuban the surviving army was starting to resemble a professional outfit. Meanwhile, Congress was trying to figure out a way to pay for the war. They borrowed money from foreign governments, sold war bonds, and printed money. Selling bonds built loyalty (vested interest helps), but printing money led to big time inflation. In 1778, the Articles of Confederation became the governing document in the colonies (officially ratified by all 13 states in 1781). The Articles was a constitution, but not the Constitution that was created in the years following independence. Under the Articles, there was no executive branch and the document did not create a strong federal government. The Articles did provide a governing body that could borrow money to support the revolution and negotiate with foreign powers. In the civilian world, women replaced men in the workforce this will be one of the building blocks in the women s rights movement although it will be a long time before they even approach equality. Many slaves used the opportunity to escape. 5,000 Black Americans served in the war. Some were granted freedom for their service. The Native Americans primarily sat on the sidelines throughout the war. The French sent Marquis de Lafayette to aid the American cause. He led troops, and continued to give the colonial army more the look of a professional, European style army. This was critical, as the American had been fighting a guerilla war but would eventually have to defeat a large British force to gain independence. After a couple years, the English strategy changed. The British decided to attack the southern colonies in order to quell the rebellion. In 1778, General Charles Cornwallis captured Savannah, GA. Henry Clinton replaced Howe in New York (Howe had lost his nerve following the Battle of Breed s Hill and had been reluctant to engage the Americans ever since). British generals Clinton and Cornwallis moved 13

14 successfully through the southern colonies from 1778 to 1780, with victories in Georgia and the Carolinas. Cornwallis then marched on and took Charles Town, South Carolina in the spring of Washington s Continental Army harassed the royal forces as they could, while avoiding pitched battle, at places like Kings s Mountain and the Cowpens. French troops finally arrived in 1780 when 6,000 landed at Newport, RI. Despite early setbacks, these allied forces made a difference for the cause of independence. They combined with American troops to comprise a force of 17,000 troops. This was a much more effective army than the Americans had at the beginning of the war. The French Fleet defeated the British in Chesapeake Bay on September 5 th, 1781, and had control of the sea-lanes off the Virginia coast. The Americans, under Washington, and French, led by the Comte de Rochambeau, trapped Cornwallis and his 7,200 men at Yorktown. Unable to evacuate or re-supply by sea, Cornwallis was forced to surrender after a three week seige (Cornwallis was one the British army s best generals, but has been ridiculed for this loss ever since) on October 19 th, This was the decisive battle of the war, and the British decided the whole thing just wasn t worth the trouble anymore. Peace talks began in Paris in 1782, culminating with the Treaty of Paris, signed September 3 rd, 1783, granting the United States of America its independence. Among the provisions of the treaty were the following: 1. The United States was granted sovereignty. 2. The U.S. boundaries were set from the east coast to the Mississippi River (except Florida which Spain still owned). 3. The U.S. was granted fishing rights off the coast. 4. It was recommended that Congress encourage the individual states to repay British citizens for lost property. 5. The seizure of men and ships on the open sea was to cease. 6. The two nations should enjoy perpetual peace (whatever that was supposed to mean). 7. The Mississippi River was to remain open for navigation by both countries. 8. The return of property seized during the war. Signers of the document for the U.S. included John Jay, Ben Franklin, D. Hartley, and John Adams. While the treaty established American independence, it did not resolve all of the issues that affected relations between Great Britain and the United States. These factors led to war just a few decades later. The heart of the problem lay in the fact that the two sides perceived the war differently. The Americans hailed it as a great revolution, launching a new nation to rival the old guard of Europe. The British, on the other hand, saw the Americans as a troublesome band of rabble. Some in Britain wanted to reconquer the colonial territory. There were also a couple provisions in the treaty that were probably doomed from the start. It was highly unlikely that individual states were going to pay British citizens for lost property, despite a congressional recommendation. Also, it could not have been too surprising that the United States would move west beyond the 14

15 Mississippi River as the young country established itself among the community of nations. These issues boiled over in 1812 when the U.S. and England went to war again. In the intervening thirty years, however, the United States was able to establish a groundbreaking constitution and expand to more than twice its size with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from France. One note that deserves mention is the scale of the American Revolution. While from a political and international perspective, it was a giant event in Western history, it was not all that large in terms of army size and casualties. The total number of dead and wounded numbered a little less than 100,000. By comparison, the American Civil war saw more than ten times that number and there were individual days in the world wars that had casualties of that magnitude. It was a limited war, unlike the total war that became the norm in the decades that followed, when countries committed all their resources to the fight. However, the American Revolution changed the world in many ways. It began the wave of independence movements that swept through New World (within 40 years of the Treaty of Paris, all of Latin America was free from European rule), the revolt created the world s first democracy and led to the U.S. Constitution, and it launched the United States on a path that would lead to the most powerful nation on the globe. 15

16 The Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution 1787 N.W. Land Ordinance 1788 George Washington elected President French Revolution 1791 The U.S. Constitution was ratified 1792 Washington re-elected 1796 John Adams elected President 1797 George Washington s Farewell Address 1800 Thomas Jefferson elected President 1803 The Louisiana Territory was purchased during Jefferson s administration/marbury vs. Madison 1804 Jefferson re-elected 1807 The Embargo Act of 1807 was passed 1808 James Madison elected President 1810-Off year election brought War Hawks into congress /War of 1812/Ended with the Treaty of Ghent/Madison re-elected 1815 (1/8/15) Battle of New Orleans/Napoleon defeated at Waterloo (6/18) 1816 James Monroe elected President 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United States 1820 Missouri Compromise/Monroe re-elected 1821 Mexico gained independence from Spain/Napoleon died in exile 1824 John Quincy Adams elected President 1825 Erie Canal completed 1828 Andrew Jackson elected President 1830 Indian Removal Act/Joseph Smith established Mormon Church 1831 Nat Turner s Rebellion 1832 South Carolina passes law of nullification/jackson re-elected 1834 Britain abolished slavery in the empire Texas Revolution 1836 Martin Van Buren elected President 1837 Financial crisis The Panic of Cherokee Trail of Tears began 1840 William Henry Harrison elected President (died after about one month in office), replaced by John Tyler 1844 James K Polk elected President 1845 Texas enters the Union (28 th state)/the Great Potato famine in Ireland /Mexican-American War/Ended with Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo/ Polk re-elected 1847 Brigham Young and the Mormons founded Salt Lake City 1848 Zachary Taylor Elected President/Seneca Falls Women s Conference/Gold discovered in California/Communist Manifesto published 16

17 European Events Affecting American History: : The French Revolution, also known as the Great Revolution occurred when the people of Paris overthrow King Louis XVI (he and his wife Marie Antoinette were beheaded in 1793). Europe was thrown into turmoil and uncertainty. Napoleon Bonaparte took power and launched the Napoleonic Wars, which raged across the continent until 1815 (the Battle of Waterloo ended the period on 6/18/15). These events dominated Europe s attention and allowed the young United States to get its feet on the ground. Also, the need to finance war contributed to France s decision to sell the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803 for a price tag of $15,000,000, the United States purchased (this would of course lead to the Corps of Discovery expedition of ). The land area of the United States stretched nearly from sea to sea. 1807: The British outlawed the slave trade, as the people of the Western world began to view slavery as a moral issue. The U.S. was still a few decades from resolving the issue. Within the U.S.: With its ratification in 1789, the U.S. Constitution became the law of the land. It was truly a radical document, guaranteeing individual liberty and providing recourse for the common man against the abuses of state authority. It was a direct result of the experience of the founding fathers in their dealings with the King of England. James Madison was its primary architect. The Constitution was built to last, so it is intentionally vague in places. This allowed for interpretation in the future, as Madison recognized that many changes were on the horizon. The Constitution is divided into three parts. The first part is the Preamble, which states the goals of the living document: We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. The second portion of the document includes seven articles defining the role of government and separating powers among the three branches (Executive-President, Legislative-Congress, and Judicial-the Court System) with the goal of a balance of control. This was designed to prevent one person or group from exercising too much leverage. The third part of the document is the set of amendments, which enumerated specific individual liberties of the individual. When first proposed, the Constitution did not contain a Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments), but without one it was not likely to pass. This bill of specified, individual rights is a landmark in world history. The third part of our constitution is the subsequent collection of amendments (seventeen at this time). The Constitution defined the roles of each government as follows: -The Legislative Branch is charged with passing laws. -The Executive Branch enforces those laws. 17

18 -The Judicial Branch interprets those laws in terms of adherence to the Constitution. Articles IV through VII deal with administrative issues like ratification, the amendment process, etc. In 1800, the national capital was moved from New York to the new city of Washington D. C. (District of Columbia). This move put our capital in a more central location and also eased possible tensions with the southern states. The South feared that they would be dominated by the more populous northern states. The location of D.C., between the southern states of Maryland and Virginia was seen as a move to calm those fears. The fact that the capital does not lie in one state was also intentional so that the appearance of favoritism to one state would not exist. George Washington served as the first president from 1789 to Among the big issues that arose was the Whiskey Rebellion (a farmers protest against a government tax on whiskey that they were selling), in which the national government asserted its authority. Also, the western settlers of the U.S. clashed with Native Americans in Ohio Territory. The Indians and Whites signed a treaty to make peace, and this began a pattern of misunderstood agreements between the whites and natives that led to great problems in the decades that followed. Rivalry and debate continue over the issue of balance of power between the national and state governments. The political parties develop in the early years of our nation s history. The first U.S. election with two dominant parties was held in 1796 between Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. Jefferson represented the Republicans (don t confuse the 1796 label Republican with the party that currently uses that name), who believed in a confederation of strong states united by a less powerful federal government. John Adams won the election running as Federalist, believing that the best recipe for national success was through a strong central government that held dominion over member states. These are not just ideologues arguing over theories. The question over which they battled became central to the causes of the American Civil War six decades later. During those first few elections, the candidate who finished second in the presidential voting was named vice president, so Jefferson took a turn at the second post before being elected in 1800 to the highest office in the land. A key event from this time period is the passing of the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws were aimed at preventing citizens (and immigrants) from posing a threat to the security of the young country. They were hotly contested, as these laws threatened to undermine the 1 st Amendment rights of freedom of speech and freedom of assembly. Another issue that came up was the vote in Kentucky that said a state could nullify (void) a national law that it considered unconstitutional. The claim of the right to nullification represented a threat to the central authority of the national government it really is another example of the battle between federal and state power that plays a very large role in the coming of the Civil War. Thomas Jefferson was elected to the presidency in 1800, after a brutal campaign against Aaron Burr. Alexander Hamilton supported Jefferson and this led to a rivalry that ended with a pistol duel between Burr and Hamilton in Hamilton was killed in the duel for honor. Jefferson, the Republican, worked toward decentralization of 18

19 power and reduced the size of the federal government. Jefferson served two terms in office. One of his great achievements was the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French government of Napoleon in For the then large cost of $15 million, the United States grew tremendously and started to become a nation of substance. The Corps of Discovery (Lewis and Clark) expedition lasted for 2 years and 4 months, and created land claims and research that served the young nation very well. Controversy arose in 1806 and 1807 as the war in Europe raged. Both France and especially Britain tried to limit naval traffic, which hurt American business interests. In retaliation, Jefferson pushed through the Embargo Act of The theory was that the Europeans needed American goods, but it hurt the Americans as well and the embargo was lifted in In 1809, James Madison took his turn as President. Madison was the primary writer of the U.S. Constitution and one of the great minds in the history of our country. His served from 1809 to 1817, during the time of American growth and the War of The war was a result of ongoing tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain. The British still had forts on the Great Lakes, as a result of debts they felt the Americans owed to British citizens. The Brits aided an Indian uprising led by Tecumseh using British arms in Probably the greatest reason from an American perspective for war was the British practice of impressments of American sailors. Britain was enforcing a blockade of European ports to deny Napoleon access to raw materials from America, and to fill its naval requirements during a time of war on the continent, the Brits stopped American ships and forced Americans to serve on British ships. There were cries for war made by the War Hawks. It was primarily a naval war, with battles fought on the Great Lakes and the open sea. The U.S. enjoyed some naval success under the leadership of Oliver Hazard Perry War was a problem for the Americans. Since Jefferson had cut back on government spending, the U.S. military forces were undermanned and under equipped. The war began badly for the U.S., with the British raiding and burning towns along the Atlantic seaboard. The frontier war in the Ohio River Valley between the U.S. and Indian tribes allied to Britain went the way of the Americans. After Napoleon s defeat at the Battle of the Nations, the British ended the blockade so the reason for the conflict vanished. Both sides were ready for peace, resulting in the Treaty of Ghent (Belgium), signed 12/24/14. Ironically, the most famous battle of the war took place after the peace treaty was signed. On January 8, 1815, the Americans defeated British troops at the Battle of New Orleans (immortalized in the Johnny Horton song of the same name). In this battle, a force of Americans roughly half the size of the British held off three assaults and inflicted huge casualties. This battle made a hero of Andrew Jackson and would eventually vault him to the presidency. In addition, control of New Orleans left the U.S. in a stronger position in future relations with the British and other European countries for control of the Mississippi River. The war was pretty much a standoff, but America gained standing in international matters and a greater sense of national unity. 19

20 Native Americans: Relations between the Europeans and the native inhabitants of North America had long been a mixed bag. In the early days of colonization, Indians had at times been of great assistance to the settlers. It is unlikely that many of the early colonies would have survived at all if not for help from the eastern Indians. However, conflict was part of the story as well. There are many documented episodes of conflict between the natives and the European settlers. Looking at from a broad perspective, a clear pattern emerges. Once established, the colonists, and then the young United States, always looked to expand its possessions. Conflict was inevitable, and the result was a steady push that displaced one Indian tribe after another throughout the 19 th Century until the United States occupied the continent from coast to coast. In addition to superior technology militarily, the settlers carried diseases for which the natives had little immunity. Diseases like smallpox ravaged native populations, killing far more Indians than did bullets. Following the War of 1812, it wasn t long before fighting flared up between expanding white settlement and the inhabitants of the new lands. Florida s history throughout the period is complicated is an example of that conflict. The Florida Peninsula was incredibly diverse demographically. Spain was the first European nation to claim the land, but the Spaniards had few people in the area, especially in the north. Britain controlled Florida, but ceded it back to Spain in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. The major tribe that occupied the land was the Seminole. The Seminole Tribe was actually a mix of different southeastern groups as well some mixed blood from runaway slaves. However, there were many individual British and American citizens included in the population. Throughout the 18 th Century, many escaped slaves from the southern colonies sought refuge in Florida, some establishing their own free towns. When the expansionist eyes of the young United States fell on the new land, a series of wars were fought known collectively as the Seminole Wars (also called the Florida Wars). To protect American settlers moving in to Florida, military hero Andrew Jackson was dispatched to Florida in response to bloody violence between southern Georgian American and Natives. The First Seminole War occurred in , as Jackson s men chased the Indians into swampland and destroyed many Native villages. In 1823, a reservation was established for the Seminoles in central Florida. In 1819, Spain had ceded Florida to the U.S in exchange for land in the Louisiana Territory that was originally part of the purchase from France. The Second Seminole War lasted from The United States had adopted a policy of removal for tribes to Indian Country in modern day Oklahoma. 20