International Perspectives on the Management of Sport

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2 International Perspectives on the Management of Sport

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4 International Perspectives on the Management of Sport Editors Milena M. Parent Trevor Slack AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

5 Elsevier Academic Press 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California , USA 84 Theobald s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2007, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) , fax: (+44) , permissions@elsevier. co.uk. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage ( by selecting Customer Support and then Obtaining Permissions. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data International perspectives on the management of sport / editors Milena M. Parent, Trevor Slack. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: (alk. paper) ISBN-10: X (alk. paper) 1. Sports administration Cross-cultural studies. I. Parent, Milena M. II. Slack, Trevor, 1948 III. Title. GV713.I dc British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 13: ISBN 10: X For all information on all Elsevier Academic Press publications visit our Web site at Printed in the United States of America Working together to grow libraries in developing countries

6 To Trevor and to all my graduate students MMP To Jim Biddle, a good teacher and a good friend TS

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8 Contents Foreword xiii Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix Contributors xxi 1 Introduction (Parent, Gerrard, and Slack) Organization Theory Economics/Finance Future Research References I Institutions and Environments 15 2 Athletic Fundraising and Institutional Development: Friend or Foe? (Stinson and Howard) Research Stream Overview Central Findings/Themes Conclusions/Implications References Understanding Sport Participation A Cross Level Analysis from the Perspectives of Neo-Institutionalism and Bourdieu (Skille and Skirstad) Norwegian Sport The Sports City Program (SCP) Theories of Field: Neo-Institutionalism and Bourdieu vii

9 viii Contents Explaining Sport Participation: Different Levels of Analysis Concluding Remarks References Network Perspectives on Organizations (Quatman and Chelladurai) What Are Networks? What Is the Network Perspective? The Network Perspective and Organizations Practical Applications of a Network Perspective Summary and Conclusions References The Political Economy of Managing Outdoor Sport Environments (Trendafilova and Chalip) The Tragedy of the Commons The Coase Theorem Collective Action Public Policies and Regulations Voluntary Cooperation Subcultures and Sport Implications References The Institutional Dimension of the Sports Economy in Transition Countries (Poupaux and Andreff) The Collapse of the Soviet-Style Sports Economy Institution Building and Economic Transformation in Transition Economies Assessing Institutional Change in Transitional Sports Economies Concordance between Sports and Economic Institutions in Transition Countries Conclusion References II Professional Leagues National Dominance in European Football Leagues (Goossens and Kesenne) Theoretical Model Benchmark: No Broadcasting/Sponsorship, Closed Labor and Product Market

10 Contents ix Introduction of Live Broadcasting and Shirt-Sponsorship Introduction of the Champions League with an Open Labor Market and Large Increase in Broadcast Rights A First Empirical Verification Conclusions References Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Beyond Competitive Balance (Kringstad and Gerrard) Uncertainty of Outcome, Competitive Balance and the Theory of Professional Sports Leagues Competitive Balance in the Simple League Context Competitive Balance in More Complex League Structures Measuring Competitive Balance in the North American Major Leagues and European Club Football Some Concluding Thoughts References Transactions Cost Variation and Vertical Integration: Major League Baseball s Minor League Affiliates (Winfree, McCluskey, and Fort) Vertical Integration in MLB Transaction Costs and Demand Variation: Specification The Seven Hypotheses : Results and Further Evaluation Ownership Structure and Vertical Integration Conclusions References Organization Specific Training and Player Salaries: Evidence from the National Basketball Association (Darling and Maxcy) Data and Models Discussion of Results Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research References

11 x Contents III Event and Voluntary Organizations The Governance of the International Olympic Committee (Kübler and Chappelet) The IOC s Management Managing the IOC s Management The IOC s Regulatory Mechanisms Harmonizing the Regulatory Mechanisms The Metagovernance of the IOC Conclusions References Structural Factors Influencing the Volunteer- Professional Staff Relationship in Large-Scale Sporting Events (Parent and Slack) Methodology Results and Discussion Conclusions References A Typology of Sponsorship Activity (Thompson and Speed) Taxonomy and Typologies Conceptual Framework The Dimensions of Classification: Targets and Objectives Sponsorship Typology Empirical Use of the Typology Theoretical Use of the Typology References Understanding Control in Voluntary Sport Organizations (Byers, Henry, and Slack) Past Research Underpinnings of a New Conception of Control Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions References Sports Clubs Computer Usage Emotions (Friederici and Heinemann) Thematic Elements Computer Technology in Sports Clubs

12 Contents xi Emotions in Computer Usage Concluding Remarks References Index

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14 Foreword In 2002, the Economist devoted one of its special reports to world football, in particular the effects of globalizing markets on the organization of football. Among other trends, the authors noted that Europe s three top leagues were siphoning the world s best young players from their homelands, which was hurting those local teams and leagues. There were other effects. Jorge Valdano, who played for Argentina s 1986 World Cup champions and later served as sporting director of Real Madrid, put it this way: Twenty years ago it was easy to say that Latin American football was about technique and talent, and European football was about organization, speed, and fighting spirit. But with television and player transfers, all these trends are coming together. 1 Sociologists have cautioned against glib conclusions about such trends. As Grant Jarvie has argued, global or international visions/versions of sport may coexist with local visions/versions. Just because everyone wears Nike products does not mean that everyone plays Nike s game. 2 Moreover, 1 Jorge Valdano, Passion, pride, and profit: A survey of football, Economist 6, 9 (June 1, 2002) Grant Jarvie, Internationalism and sport in the making of nations, Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power, 10 (2003), For other balanced views of global sport see the special issue of the Sociology of Sport Journal, 11, 4 (December 1994); Alan Bairner, Sport, Nationalism, and Globalization (Albany: SUNY Press, 2001); Toby Miller, Goeffrey Lawrence, Jim McKay, and David Rowe, Globalization and Sport (London: Sage, 2001). xiii

15 xiv Foreword the last century and a half witnessed alternating currents of convergencedivergence-convergence in the modes and manners of sports around the world. The period between 1870 and 1914 (which contained the golden age of global capitalism) saw a certain sporting convergence as athletes and promoters on widespread continents embraced particular forms of sport from England (association football), America (baseball and basketball), and Canada (hockey). From 1914 to the 1970s, however, the currents diverged as nations dealt with hot wars, depressions, and cold wars. It was this period that spawned Brazilian football or Russian hockey. The last four decades have seen another shift in the tides, back toward the convergence that Valdano described. 3 What have been the effects on the management of sport organizations? Does the notion of Brazilian football or Russian hockey extend beyond playing techniques and coaching tactics, to organizational dynamics and management theory? These are big questions for academics and practitioners alike. There is much to sort out. Milena Parent and Trevor Slack have assembled an international team of outstanding scholars to help us begin this inquiry. Scholars, topics, and theoretical and methodological approaches in vibrant fields these three are always in flux, growing in scope and strength by accretion and deletion, just the way sports grow and change. Old hands in sport management will see some well-known and some new names among the authors. Some of the topics are of long standing but still contentious inquiry e.g., the impact of athletic success on institutional fund-raising, factors related to competitive balance, the effects of vertical industry integration, the role of governing bodies, sponsorship, and control. But readers will take away something new on each of these topics. The book includes some less-studied topics that reflect a changing world in the last three decades as global capital has reasserted itself and sports models begin to converge: transition economies, sports clubs and voluntary organizations, and the impact of new technologies. Finally, there are some fresh theoretical and methodological perspectives such as Skille s and Skirstad s use of Bourdieu, Trendafivola, and Chalip s use of the Coase Theorem ; Quatman and Chelladurai s use of network analysis; and Friederici and Heinemann s very interesting emotionology. Parent and Slack offer a compelling introduction that places the chapters into a coherent framework of past, present, and future developments in scholarship. That alone is worth the price of admission. The editors have chosen almost all North American and European scholars and topics. 3 For an extended discussion of these phases, see Stephen Hardy and Andrew Holman, Periodizing Hockey History: One Approach, Annual General Meeting of the Society for International Hockey Research, Moncton, New Brunswick, May We will use this framework in our forthcoming book on hockey history.

16 Foreword xv Will this help us understand what is happening in South African soccer or Dominican baseball or Saudi hockey? Time will tell. The world of sport management is changing quickly in a global age. International Perspectives on the Management of Sport will reward any reader seeking to understand the how and the why of this process. Stephen Hardy University of New Hampshire

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18 Preface This is an exciting time for sport around the world. Not only is sport a multibillion dollar industry (many times over and still growing), but research that examines the management of sport in its various forms is expanding. This book offers the cutting edge research in sport management being done in various countries around the world. The people who have written for this book are among the best in the world; they are all-stars, if you pardon our pun. We have primarily divided them up into two groups, the sport economists and, for want of a better term, the organizational theorists. This is not to say that good, theoretically-informed work does not occur in other areas, such as sport and the law or marketing and sponsorship. Rather, we have chosen not to focus on these issues in the present book. These all-star sport management researchers are each paired with a current or recent doctoral student with a promising career. Our goal was to present leading sport management research from around the world while providing promising graduate students an opportunity to publish, with the assistance of their (current or former) supervisor. That is why each chapter s first author is the student. The chapters in this book range from those that deal with small voluntary sport organizations to those that deal with the International Olympic Committee. Issues that confront the three major spectator sports [football (soccer to North Americans), basketball, and baseball] are also examined, as are some of the issues that face multisport events and those that confront single sports. The theoretical frameworks used vary, and it xvii

19 xviii Preface is the problem that confronts the particular organization that determines the theoretical approach taken. The authors of Chapters 2 15 come from nine different countries, thus demonstrating that issues related to sport are global problems and not restricted to one particular geographic area. Thus, this book offers (as its title states) an international perspective on various aspects of sport management by current and future leaders in the sport management field. This book is meant for anyone interested in knowing the latest research related to sport: students (undergraduate and graduate), researchers, sport managers, and sport volunteers.

20 Acknowledgments This book would not have been possible without the enthusiastic support of all contributors and of Elsevier for recognizing the excellence of the authors and the emergence of an important area of research, sport management. We would also like to thank our respective families for their support, as they know the time and effort it takes to produce quality research. We would both like to thank the authors who have contributed to this book. They come from nine different countries. They are current and former editors of the Journal of Sport Management, the European Sport Management Quarterly (formerly the European Journal of Sport Management), the International Journal of Sport Finance, and the International Review for the Sociology of Sport. Their articles and books form the backbone of current work on the management of sport. We would like to thank Steve Hardy for writing the Foreword to this book and Bill Gerrard for his help with the introduction, particularly the section on economics. We would also like to thank Dennis McGonagle and Elsevier for agreeing to publish this book. Milena would like to thank her parents, Marc and Ingrid Parent, for their support during her studies and now as a new professor. Milena would also like to thank Trevor for being a true mentor. Trevor would like to thank Milena Parent for being a good coauthor and supporting him through a difficult time. Trevor would also like to xix

21 xx Acknowledgments thank Susan Davis for her help with typing the manuscript. Last but not least, Trevor would like to thank his wife, Janet. Janet has always loved him and supported his many projects, both prior to and during his illness. To her he owes the greatest debt. Dr. Milena M. Parent, Ph.D. and Prof. Trevor Slack, Ph.D.

22 Contributors Andreff, Wladimir Wladimir is a full Professor of Economics at the University Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne. He holds a Ph.D. in Economics from the University Paris 9 Dauphine. He previously was a full professor in Economics at the Limoges University and a full professor in Economics at the University of Social Sciences of Grenoble 2. He has published 10 books and more than 300 articles relating to economics. His work has been translated into a number of different languages, and he is a consultant on economics to a number of organizations and governments. His research interests are in the economics of sports and the economics of postcommunist countries. Byers, Terri Terri Byers is a Principal Lecturer at Coventry University in the Faculty of Strategy and Applied Management. Her main research interests are in organization control and change, particularly in the voluntary sector, although she has also published work related to commercial organizations in the areas of strategy in small firms and managing quality and performance in sport organizations. Having served several years on the board of European Sport Management Quarterly, Terri is now on the editorial board for the International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing and is currently working on a special issue for this journal. She has commissioned a book by Sage (coauthored by Milena Parent and Trevor Slack) on Key Concepts in Sport Management. xxi

23 xxii Contributors Chalip, Laurence Laurence is a Professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Education at the University of Texas at Austin, where he also serves as coordinator of the graduate and undergraduate sport management programs. He earned his Ph.D. in policy analysis at the University of Chicago. His research focuses on issues of sport marketing and policy. He has published three books, three research monographs, and more than 70 articles and book chapters. His research has been funded by grants from the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, Hankook Ilbo, the Australian Research Council, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre, and the Texas Department of State Health Services. He is a Research Fellow of the North American Society for Sport Management, which conferred the Earl F. Zeigler Award upon him in He has been given two service awards from the Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand, and in 2000 was named to the International Chair of Olympism by the International Olympic Committee and the Centre for Olympic Studies. He was the founding editor of Sport Management Review, and is past editor of the Journal of Sport Management. In addition, he serves on the editorial board of five other journals. Chappelet, Jean-Loup Since 1993, Jean-Loup has been a Professor of public management at IDHEAP, the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration associated with the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. He has also been the IDHEAP Director since Born in Morocco in 1953, he obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Montpellier, France, and a M.Sc. from Cornell University, New York, where he held teaching and research positions. In the 1980s, he worked for five years as head of the IT department within the International Olympic Committee (IOC) administration. Jean- Loup specializes in sport management, sport policy, and sport politics, with a particular emphasis on the IOC and the organization of Olympic Games and other sport events as regional and national public policies. Chelladurai, Packianathan Packianathan ( Chella ) secured his Ph.D. in Management Science from the University of Waterloo in Canada. He is a tenured full Professor of Sport Management in the College of Education and Human Ecology at The Ohio State University specializing in organizational theory and organizational behavior in sport. He has published articles in leading journals, such as the Journal of Sport Management, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, International Review of Sport Sociology, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, and Quest. He has authored more than 20 chapters in books, two monographs, and four books. He was the editor of the

24 Contributors xxiii Journal of Sport Management and continues to serve on its editorial board and that of the European Sport Management Quarterly. Darling, Joshua J. Joshua ( Josh ) received his M.S. degree in sport management from Ithaca College in Josh is from the greater Albany, New York area and is a lifelong sports fan. He earned his B.S. degree from the Park School of Communication at Ithaca College in He is currently pursuing opportunities in sport communications and sport management in both professional and college sports. Fort, Rodney Rodney is Professor of Economics in the School of Economic Sciences at Washington State University. He received his Ph.D. from the California Institute of Technology in He serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of Sports Economics, the International Journal of Sport Finance, and the Eastern Economic Journal, and as a vice-president for the International Association of Sports Economists. His publications are too numerous and diverse to list and have appeared in the American Economic Review, Journal of Political Economy, Journal of Economic Literature, Economic Inquiry, Scottish Journal of Political Economy, and the Journal of Sports Economics. His books with James Quirk (Pay Dirt and Hardball, Princeton University Press) are obligatory references and he is author of the best-selling textbook Sports Economics (2nd edition, Prentice Hall). Professor Fort has been a panelist on sports economics issues at many universities around the world (United States, Switzerland, Cologne, Rio de Janeiro, and Gijon). He has also testified before the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust concerning competitive balance issues in baseball and before the New Zealand Commerce Commission on the establishment of a Premier Division in New Zealand Rugby Union. He frequently renders expert opinion in legal cases concerning sports, has appeared on the CBC s Hockey Night in Canada, and is frequently interviewed on National Public Radio. Friederici, Markus Markus is an Assistant Professor in Sociology. His research interests include organizations, theory of emotions, and cultural studies. He obtained a diploma in sociology, psychology, and political sciences. He obtained a Ph.D. in sociology (magna cum laude). He was a visiting professor at the University of Pernambuco (Recife, Brazil). He has published about emotions in organization, social implications of technologies, and cultural differentiation in sports organizations. He worked as the editor of the Hamburg Review of Social Sciences ( and as a consultant.

25 xxiv Contributors Gerrard, Bill Bill is a Professor of Sport Management and Finance at Leeds University Business School. He is also visiting professor at Trondheim Business School in Norway. Bill is a graduate of the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1982), Trinity College, Cambridge (M.Phil., 1983), and the University of York (D.Phil., 1995). He is a past editor of the European Sport Management Quarterly, associate editor of the International Journal of Sport Finance, and a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Sport Management and Journal of Sports Economics. He was awarded the European Association for Sport Management Scientific Excellence Award in Bill has published extensively on the economics and finance of professional team sports. His main areas of focus are performance analysis and asset valuation. He has acted as an expert witness in a number of sports legal cases and worked as a consultant for a number of professional sports teams particularly in UK soccer. Bill regularly comments in the national and international media on sport business. His sporting allegiances in soccer are Celtic, Leeds United, and Scotland. Goossens, Kelly Kelly is currently a Ph.D. student in applied economics at the University of Antwerp. She is also a research and teaching assistant in the Economics Department at that same institution. Her research interests are in sports economics, particularly competitive balance. She has published in Rivista di Diritto ed Economia dello Sport [Journal of Law and Economics of Sport]. Heinemann, Klaus Klaus was a full Professor of sociology at the University of Hamburg (Germany). He received a Ph.D. and habilitation in sociology at the Technische University Karlsruhe. He was previously a full professor of sociology at the University of Trier. He is currently an Emeritus Professor in sociology at the University of Hamburg. His research emphasis is on the sociology of organizations and economy, sociology and economy of sport, and methods of empirical research. He has published 30 books and more than 180 articles on these subjects. He was chair of the Scientific Advisory Board of the German Sport Federation from 1978 to 1990, a member of the board of the Federal Institute for Sport Sciences and editor-in-chief of the International Review for the Sociology of Sport from 1988 to Henry, Ian Ian is a Professor of Leisure Policy and Management at Loughborough University. He is currently the Director of the Centre for Olympic Studies and Research, which is a joint research center of the British Olympic

26 Contributors xxv Foundation and Loughborough University. He is an author, coauthor, and editor of a number of research texts in this field, including Sport in the City (Routledge, 2001) edited with Chris Gratton, The Politics of Leisure Policy (2nd edition, Palgrave 2001), and Transnational and Compara - tive Research in Sport: Globalization, Governance and Sport Policy (Routledge, August 2007). Howard, Dennis Dennis is the head of the Marketing Department and Philip H. Knight Professor of Business in the University of Oregon s Lundquist College of Business, where he teaches sports business courses at the Warsaw Sports Marketing Center. Dennis formerly served as the Director of the Graduate Program in Sport Management at The Ohio State University. Dennis has authored or coauthored three books and close to 100 articles on sport and leisure industry topics. His book with John Crompton, Financing Sport, is the first comprehensive textbook on the many traditional and innovative revenue acquisition methods available to sports organizations. In 1998, Dennis received the Earle Zeigler Award from the North American Society for Sport Management in recognition of his outstanding research contributions to the field of sport management. Currently, Dennis serves as the Editor of the International Journal of Sport Finance and on the editorial board of the Journal of Sport Management. Since joining the University of Oregon business faculty in 1997, Dennis has received the Undergraduate Teaching Award and the Harry R. Jacobs Distinguished Teaching Award. Kesenne, Stefan Stefan is a Professor of economics at the University of Antwerp and parttime at Leuven. He holds a Ph.D. in economics from the Catholic University of Leuven. He teaches classes in sports economics, labor economics, and applied econometrics. His major field of research is sports economics. He is vice-president of the International Association of Sports Economists (IASE) and a member of the Scientific Committee of the International Center for Sport Studies (CIES) at the University of Neuchâtel, Switzerland. He is a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Sports Economics (JSE) and the European Sport Management Quarterly (ESMQ). Kringstad, Morten Morten is an Associate Professor at Trondheim Business School in Norway and a Ph.D. student at Leeds University Business School in the United Kingdom. He has a graduate qualification in economics and business administration from the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration. His principal research area is the business and economic

27 xxvi Contributors aspects of professional team sports. He has presented at several NASSM, EASM, and IASE conferences. Kübler, Brenda Brenda is a part time research associate at the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP) in Lausanne. She holds a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Nottingham, England and a postgraduate technical languages diploma. She worked in the International Olympic Committee Administration and in other international organizations. She is also a freelance translator and editor. Maxcy, Joel G. Joel joined the University of Georgia, Department of Kinesiology as Associate Professor and coordinator of the sport management program in He was previously an Associate Professor and coordinator of the Sport Management graduate program at Ithaca College and has been on faculty at the State University of New York Cortland and Eastern Oregon University. Joel earned an M.A. degree from the University of Maine and received his Ph.D. in economics from Washington State University. He teaches courses in sports finance and economics. His research interests include economic and legal applications to amateur and professional sports. McCluskey, Jill Jill is Associate Professor in the School of Economic Sciences at Washington State University (WSU). Her research focuses on theoretical and empirical issues related to quality and consumer perceptions. She has published 42 peer-reviewed journal articles, in such journals as the Review of Economics and Statistics, Journal of Applied Econometrics, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, and Land Economics. She received her Ph.D. in 1998 from the University of California, Berkeley with specializations in economic theory, industrial organization, and environmental and resource economics. Parent, Milena M. Milena is Assistant Professor in the School of Human Kinetics at the University of Ottawa. She is also the Interim Director of the Research Centre for Sport in Canadian Society. Her areas of expertise are organization theory and strategic management. Her research focuses on organizing committees and stakeholders of large-scale sporting events, such as the Pan American Games, the Jeux de la Francophonie, and the Olympic Games. She is also interested in community, sport-based partnership management, as well as characterizing youth engagement in sport. She has

28 Contributors xxvii published in the Journal of Sport Management, European Sport Management Quarterly, and the International Journal of Sport Finance. She is also the coauthor of the 2nd edition of Understanding Sport Organizations: The Application of Organization Theory with Trevor Slack. Her research has been featured at various conferences including the North American Society for Sport Management conference, the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada conference, and the Academy of Management conference. Poupaux, Sandrine Sandrine was a Ph.D. student at University Paris 1 Sorbonne. Her research interests include sports economics and institutional changes in postcommunist economies. She has published in Revue Juridique et Economique du Sport and The Handbook on the Economics of Sport (S. Szymanski, ed.). Quatman, Catherine Catherine graduated in 2006 with a Ph.D. in sport management from The Ohio State University. Her doctoral dissertation was titled The Social Construction of Knowledge in the Field of Sport Management: A Social Network Perspective. She has published on leadership and motivation in sports in the Olympic Coach, and has presented four papers in scholarly forums. Catherine is currently serving as an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at Texas A & M University. Skille, Eivind Eivind received his Ph.D. from the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in He is currently an Associate Professor of Sport Sociology at Hedmark University College. Skirstad, Berit Berit is currently academic head of the Department of Culture and Social Studies at the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences. She is also an Associate Professor at that same institution responsible for sport management. She is President of EASM and a leader of the scientific committee for the European Sport Management Conferences. She has edited two books in English and two in Norwegian and published numerous chapters. She has also participated in sport conferences and presented papers over the last 35 years. She has been a board member of the Norwegian University for Sport and Physical Education for several years and a member of several committees and an executive board member of several sport organizations both nationally and internationally. She holds executive board positions in skiing, orienteering, Sport for All and European Women, and sport at an international level.

29 xxviii Contributors Slack, Trevor Trevor is a Professor at the University of Alberta. In 2002, he suffered a stroke and this book is the second he has published since that time. He has published in such sports and leisure journals as Journal of Sport Management; International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship; Sport Management Review; European Sport Management Quarterly; International Review for the Sociology of Sport; Journal of Leisure Research; Leisure Studies; Culture, Sport Society; and International Journal of Sport Finance. He has also published in Organization Studies, Journal of Management Studies, Human Relations, European Journal of Marketing, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, and the Academy of Management Journal. He has also published a number of books and chapters on the management of sport. Speed, Richard Richard is Associate Dean for Faculty Resources & ANZ Professor of Marketing Strategy at the Melbourne Business School, University of Melbourne. Richard and Peter Thompson published a paper on consumer response to sponsorship in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. Stinson, Jeff Jeffrey is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at North Dakota State University. He earned his Ph.D. in Marketing from the University of Oregon in His research interests center on the influence of intercollegiate athletics on the behavior of private donors to colleges and universities. Thompson, Peter Peter has an MBA from the Melbourne Business School. He is a lecturer in marketing at Monash University and is currently a doctoral student at the Melbourne Business School. Peter and Richard Speed published a paper on consumer response to sponsorship in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. Trendafilova, Sylvia Sylvia is completing her doctoral studies in sport management at the University of Texas at Austin, where she also teaches in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Education. In addition, she serves as a mentor for student athletes through the Department of Athletics. In 2004 and 2006, she won the Alderson Teaching Excellence Award. She earned two Masters degrees at Baylor University, one in environmental science and one in sport management. She is a certified official for U.S.A. Track and Field. Her work on environmental management in sport has been presented at three conferences of the North American Society for Sport Management.

30 Contributors xxix Winfree, Jason Jason has a Ph.D. in Economics and is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at the University of Michigan. His primary research focuses on professional and collegiate athletics. This research encompasses fields of applied microeconomics and econometrics such as Industrial Organization, Labor Economics, and Public Economics. He studies the factors that affect attendance, ownership, and pay in Major League Baseball. He has published in these areas in such journals as Journal of Sports Economics, European Sport Management Quarterly, and Applied Economics.

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32 1 Introduction Milena M. Parent, Bill Gerrard, and Trevor Slack Sport management research includes many areas: organizational theory, organizational behavior, strategy, finance/economics, marketing and sponsorship, law, ethics, policy, leadership, and education, just to name a few. The North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) was created in 1985 to bring together researchers interested in sport management. Since then, the field has grown in size and quality of research. This book presents the cutting edge research of two key areas of sport management, organization theory and finance/economics. Organization theory has evolved over the years from examining the role of organizations in society and who controls the organizations, to understanding organizational structures, processes, and activities in order to make the organization more efficient and effective (Clegg, Hardy, and Nord, 1996). Pugh and Hickson (1997) separate organization theory research into six main areas: the structure of organizations, organizations and their environments, management, decision making, people in organizations, and organizational change and learning. In turn, sport finance and economics cover a wide range of topics over and beyond how to do budgets. Examples of areas of interest include: team/club/league objectives, demand versus pricing, player labor markets, stadium funding and naming rights, economic impact analyses of events, economic impacts of such issues as television broadcasting and discrimination, economics of various amateur versus professional leagues, fundraising and sponsorship, and public versus private funding (Howard and Crompton, 2004; Sandy, Sloane, and Rosentraub, 2004). 1

33 2 1. Introduction This introductory chapter is structured as follows. First, we provide an overview of organization theory in the sport management literature and discuss what this book s chapters add to this field. We do the same for finance/economics. Finally, we provide avenues for future research. Organization Theory Organization theory is an important aspect of research in sport management, as we all have to deal with various types of organizations in our lives. If we understand them, we can make them better and, in turn, make our lives easier. As mentioned earlier, organization theory deals with all that relates to organizations. As such, organization theory provides us with a macro view of organizations, as opposed to organization behavior s more micro view. There are many perspectives and theories that fit within organization theory, such as network theory, institutional theory, population ecology, structuration theory, contingency theory, and critical perspectives. While organization theory research within the broader management literature has an extensive base having concepts dating back to Adam Smith s Wealth of Nation, first published in 1776 that is not the case within sport management, due in part to the relative newness of the sport management field (NASSM was only created in 1985 to help define and develop the field). The following provides an overview of our knowledge in sport management organization theory research, as well as what the chapters in this book contribute to that knowledge. Organization Theory in Sport Management Organization theory-related research in sport management started with the work of one of the coeditors of this book, Trevor Slack, and his colleagues (notably Bob Hinings, Lisa Kikulis, and Lucie Thibault). Slack began by focusing on a sport organization s structural and design aspects. Kikulis, Slack, Hinnings, and Zimmermann (1989) and Kikulis, Slack, and Hinings (1992) offered a structural taxonomy of, and archetypes for, national sport organizations. Thibault, Slack, and Hinings (1991, 1993, 1994) examined more specifically the impact on the structure and operations of national sport organizations when increasing the number of professionals in the organization, as well as the types of strategies a national sport organization may choose. Slack and Hinings (1992, 1994) also began exploring change in national sport organizations, whereas Amis and Slack (1996) further explored the size-structure relationship in sport organizations. Amis, Slack, and Berrett (1995) took an organizational theory perspective to examining conflict in organizations, as did Kikulis, Slack, and Hinings (1995) in their study on decision making.

34 Organization Theory 3 Other areas of organization theory have also been studied using sport organizations. Notably, Chelladurai and his colleagues examined goals and effectiveness of sport organizations. For example, Trail and Chelladurai (2002) focused on intercollegiate athletics goals, whereas Chelladurai, Szyszlo, and Haggerty (1987) offered a national sport organization effectiveness psychometric scale. Finally, Chelladurai and Haggerty (1991) focused on process effectiveness perception differences between volunteers and professionals. As well, power and politics have been examined in sport organizations using an organization theory perspective. For example, Sugden and Tomlinson (1998) studied power in relation to the governance of football. Palmer (2000) explored the researching of elites in sport, whereas Hoye and Cuskelly (2003) examined board power and performance. More recently, institutional theory, strategic alliances/partnerships, and critical perspectives have been areas of interest for sport management organization theorists (Parent, 2006). For example, O Brien and Slack (1999, 2003, 2004) used institutional theory to examine deinstitutionalization processes, roles and strategic behaviors of organizational actors, and organizational change in the English Rugby Union. Institutional theory was also used by Silk, Slack, and Amis (2000) to examine organizational processes in the 1995 Canada Cup of Soccer. However, much remains to be done in relation to sport management and institutional theory, such as establishing institutionalization patterns within sport systems, examining (institutional) pressures from the environments and whether (and how) resistance to these pressures is possible, and examining institutional change within national and international, amateur and professional sports. Another area of interest has been strategic alliances, partnerships, and networks. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they are distinct: a partnership is a formal or informal association of two or more actors (individuals, groups, organizations) formed for various reasons (outputs, learning, assistance, and so on), a strategic alliance is a formally negotiated partnership between two or more actors based on organizational learning, whereas a network is a skill-based partnership formed between more than two partners (cf. Child and Faulkner, 1998). Partnerships, strategic alliances, and networks have begun to be examined, especially structurally, within the sport management literature: Cousens and Slack (1996) examined antecedents of partnership formation; Glover (1999) provided partner selection guidelines; and Chadwick (2000) highlighted the importance of an actor s position within a network. Nevertheless, basic concepts such as which form (partnership, strategic alliance, or network) is best for sport organizations have yet to be determined, as these are issues of the management and sustainability of such organizational relationships.

35 4 1. Introduction A third recent area of interest for sport management organization theorists is the use of a critical perspective. Critical perspectives are based on different combinations of one or more of the following developments in Western thought: 1) the complexity of the human project (e.g., Freud); 2) the issue of power/knowledge (e.g., Foucault, Nietzche); 3) socially constructed accounts of language and experience (e.g., discourse analysis); and 4) an historically-based social conflict theory (e.g., Marx and his critical theory). Critical theory is increasingly used by sport management researchers to examine social and economic trends in sport (e.g., Harvey and Saint-Germain, 2001) and to examine the quality of sport management research (e.g., Chalip, 1996). It is also used as a framework for examining different actor perspectives (e.g., King, 1997). Unlike many management researchers who stop at critiquing what is wrong in the world (using critical theory for example), sport management researchers are also using this perspective to improve the plight of various groups through action-research. For example, Frisby, Crawford, and Dorer (1997) used action-research to assist women in accessing local physical activity services, while Burden (2000) used action-research for examining community building and volunteering. While this is a good start, a wider variety of organizations and cultures should be studied as, by virtue of its nature, we cannot generalize findings from a critical theory-based study. Contributions from this Book When examining the organizational theorists contributions to this book, it is clear that they are making significant advances to the field. First, Skille and Skirstad (in Chapter 3) combine a current issue in sport, sport participation, with two increasingly popular theoretical perspectives, institutional theory and Bourdieu s sociocultural theory of practice. This chapter exemplifies the theoretical advantages to using two perspectives, as well as providing practical reflections on supply and demand for sport participation. Second, Quatman and Chelladurai (in Chapter 4) argue for the examination of sport organizations from a network perspective. The authors explain how using such a perspective is not only useful for organizational theorists but also for practitioners. Third, Trendafilova and Chalip (in Chapter 5) address sport-related prevention and redress of environmental degradation using the tragedy of the commons and the Coase Theorem. The authors make the case for interventions to be targeted to sport subcultures in order to foster change in environmental values and norms. While this may be a slow process, the authors suggest regulations for more immediate impact. Fourth, Kübler and Chappelet (in Chapter 11) examine the International Olympic Committee s (IOC) governance in depth at five different levels and provide informed comments as to the IOC s progress and

36 Economics/Finance 5 potential. Fifth, unlike most research in sport management, which examines the individuals in the volunteer-professional (paid) staff relationship, Parent and Slack (in Chapter 12) take an organizational theory perspective and propose structural factors that can impact the relationship. Sixth, Thompson and Speed (in Chapter 13) distill the sponsorship literature in order to provide a typology of sponsorship activity, thereby allowing different sponsorship opportunities to be compared appropriately. The authors also provide both empirical and theoretical uses for the typology. Seventh, Byers, Henry, and Slack (in Chapter 14) examine conflict in a holistic manner in a type of organization poorly studied in this topic, voluntary organizations. They highlight the fact that while administrative, social, and self-control mechanisms may operate simultaneously, it is social and self-control mechanisms that had a more significant impact on the organizations members. Finally, in answering the dearth of technologyrelated research in organization theory, Friederici and Heinemann (in Chapter 15) explore the impact of the introduction and use of computers on sport club managers emotions. They link computer usage and emotions with organizational theory concepts such as structure, stability/change, authority, division of labor, formalization, and control. Economics/Finance Economics and finance provide a highly formalized approach to understanding the behavior of individuals and organizations. Economic and financial behavior is conceptualized as allocative choices in which individuals and organizations must resolve the fundamental dilemma of scarcity. In almost all real-world situations, the possibilities of alternative courses of action far exceed the available resources. So choices must be made. For example, professional sports teams have limited salary budgets to spend on players determined by their revenue streams. Teams must make hard choices on which current players to retain and which to cut, which rookies to draft and which free agents to recruit. The economic perspective is one of individuals and organizations continuously making decisions over how to allocate scarce resources between alternative possibilities. Economics and finance adopt an instrumentalist notion of rationality in which the allocation of resources is the means (i.e., inputs) by which individuals and organizations seek to attain the end of maximizing their economic well-being (i.e., outputs). This conceptualization of individual and organizational behavior allows choice to be modeled mathematically as constrained optimization using the tools of differential calculus. This yields the general optimal condition that individuals and organizations should allocate resources to any particular use only up to the point at