Development Physical and Motor development Cognitive development Research Techniques Social and Personal development Physical and Motor Development Prenatal Development Three stages Germinal stage (conception 2 wks) Embryonic stage (2 wks 2 mos) Fetal stage (2 months birth) Prenatal risks Maternal nutrition Maternal health Teratogens 1
Motor Development Biological development generally occurs in a down and out fashion Basic Principles: - Cephalocaudal trend: head to foot - Proximodistal trend: center-outward - Gross motor skills develop before fine motor skills Cognitive Development Current Research Techniques How can we study the perceptual and cognitive abilities of infants and young children? Preferential Looking Preferential Listening Habituation Dishabituation Physiological Changes Babies can tell us what they prefer by where they look Preference technique : babies presented with 2 different stimuli Time spent looking Baby is assumed to look longer at things it prefers 2
Piagetian Theory - Assumptions Development proceeds in stages Schemas: Knowledge is organized Change in Schemas Assimilation Accommodation The constructive nature of cognition Sensorimotor Stage Birth to Age 2 Learning through 5 senses Goal-directed actions Object permanence Mental representation Preoperational Stage Ages 2-7 Operations - defined Deferred Imitation What kids can t do: Non-reversible operations (one-way logic) Difficulty with conservation Egocentrism & Theory of mind Animism 3
Concrete Operational Stage Ages 7-11 Child is capable of mental operations What kids can do: Conservation Tasks Reversibility Classification Perspective-taking (less egocentric) Formal Operational Stage Ages 12+ Abstract thought Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Adolescent egocentrism & imaginary audience Metacognition Not all individuals reach this stage Major criticisms of Piaget s theory Many cognitive skills occur at earlier ages than Piaget suggested Overestimation of adults abilities It s not clear development occurs in stages Theoretical ideas are vague & abstract Alternatives Information-Processing Vygotsky (social and cultural influences) 4
Social and Personal Development Attachment Ainsworth Personal Identity Development Erikson, Marcia Moral Development Kohlberg Attachment Mary Ainsworth Strange situation Classifications Secure Resistant (Anxious) Avoidant Disorganized/disoriented What determines attachment? Caregiver s behavior Parental Style Child s temperament The daycare debate Current evidence: no effect of high quality day care 5
The Work of Erikson Psychosocial theory of development Developmental crisis Eight stages Erikson s Stages: Preschool 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (first year of life) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) Erikson s Stages: The School Years 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years - puberty) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) 6
Erikson s Stages: Beyond School 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (old age) Marcia s Theory of Identity Achievement Exploration = Has the person engaged in an active search for identity? Commitment = Has the person made a commitment to, e.g., values, school, career path, identity? Exploration: YES Exploration: NO Commitment: YES Identity Achievement Identity Foreclosure Commitment: NO Moratorium Identity Diffusion Evaluating Erikson Well-accepted contributions: Personal development is lifelong Emphasis on social and cultural interactions Challenges: Sharp transitions between stages? How do transitions occur? Difficult to test scientifically 7
Moral Development Two important precursors Empathy Perspective-taking Lawrence Kohlberg Looked at responses to moral dilemmas 3 levels Preconventional Conventional Postconventional Criticisms of Kohlberg s theory Reasoning about hypothetical situations Inconsistency across different dilemmas Gender differences Gilligan Doesn t generalize across cultures Summary of Development (1) Biological, cognitive, and social changes occur throughout the lifespan (anything that psychologists study can be approached developmentally). (2) Developmental psychologists have develop special techniques to learn about what babies know. (3) Piaget suggested that cognitive development occurs in stages; we construct a different reality based on our current cognitive level. (4) Attachment is an important part of our development of self. (5) Erikson suggested our sense of self develops from a series of conflicts. (6) The development of morality may occur in stages, but the reasoning behind a decision determines a person s level, not the decision itself. 8