XIII. XENOBIOTICS IN SOIL Required Readings: Alexander, M. 1965. Persistence and biological reactions of pesticides in soils. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 29:1-7. Ankumah, R.O., W.A. Dick and G. McClung. 1995. Metabolism of carbamothioate herbicide, EPTC, by Rhodococcus strain JE1 isolated from soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 59:1071-1077. Suggested Readings: Alexander, M. 1980. Biodegradation of chemicals of environmental concern. Science 211:132-138. Skladany, G. J. and F. B. Metting. 1992. Bioremediation of contaminated soil. p. 483-513. In: F. B. Metting (ed.), Soil Microbial Ecology. Marcel Dekker, New York. The word, xenobiotic, is a combination of two different roots, xeno and biotic. Xeno is from the Greek and means strange, unnatural, or different. Biotic is a word that implies life. Xenobiotic, therefore, refers to an organic compound that mimics natural biochemicals that are essential for life, but which have characteristics about them that are strange and unnatural. Xenobiotics are often toxic to life. Also, they may not be recognized by biochemical processes in plants and microorganisms and are thus resistant to degradation in the environment.
Xenobiotics include many compounds that are involved in both industrial and agricultural activities. The fate of industrial solvents and other industrial chemicals in the soil environment is an important domain of soil biochemistry. Research is desperately needed to determine the biochemical reactions in soil that transform these xenobiotic compounds to their mineral components. Synthetic organic pesticides are a class of xenobiotics that are commonly used in agriculture and are added to the soil in large amounts each year. Chemicals with pesticide activity were designed primarily to control insect, weed, fungal or nematode pests. In 1939, DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) was discovered by a chemist named Paul Herman Mueller. Mueller was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in 1948 for his discovery. Increased use of pesticides began during the 1950s and has continued to the present time. Since that time, more than 600 different chemical pesticides have been tested and registered for use in the United States. The fates of xenobiotics in soil include (i) complete mineralization or (ii) stabilization of the parent compound, or some metabolite of the compound, in soil. If the xenobiotics are toxic and the rate of degradation is very slow, adverse effects on human and on ecological health are possible. Therefore it is desirable to maintain xenobiotic concentrations in soil at as low a level as possible. Because of these concerns, considerable research effort has been spent in trying to understand the metabolic degradation pathways of xenobiotics in soil. The remainder of the introductory remarks to this chapter will pertain to pesticide reactions in soil, although many of the comments would also apply to other classes of xenobiotics. Effect of Pesticides on Soil Processes. Evaluations of the effects of pesticides on soil processes have often yielded conflicting results. This is because the toxicity of pesticides varies and other
soil factors interact with the pesticide to influence its activity. Tests conducted in the laboratory with pure microbial cultures and growth media provides data that, generally, cannot be ecologically interpreted. Contrary to model laboratory systems, pesticides in soil may be sorbed onto colloids, degraded rapidly, or exist in widely varying concentrations at different microsites within the soil. Also a wide diversity of different microorganisms in soil and the interaction between them cannot be predicted when pure cultures are used for study. A common technique of evaluating the fate of a pesticide in soil is to add the pesticide directly to the soil and measure the CO2 that is evolved. Pesticide additions to soil are also made to determine the pesticide s effect on other soil processes such as nitrification, phosphorus mineralization, denitrification, etc. Microbiological changes due to pesticide addition may be determined by measuring total counts, enumeration of individual species, presence of absence of a wide number of different species (i.e. species diversity), or change in biological function. A process in soil that is very sensitive to the presence of certain pesticides is nitrification. This seems to be due to the narrow range of microbial species that carry out this transformation. Several pathogenic microorganisms are also sensitive to certain pesticides. Addition of fungicides to soils, for example, may effectively control plant disease due to the destruction of the pathogenic fungi. In addition, however, other beneficial fungal species may also be killed. For most soil processes, addition of pesticides to soil causes only a small, temporary drop in activity. The addition of a pesticide to soil may, in some cases, bring about selective pressure for those microorganisms capable of degrading the pesticide. Or, the pesticide may stimulate the production of extracellular enzymes that are capable of detoxifying the pesticide molecule. The phenomenon in which a pesticide degrades so rapidly in soil that it no longer performs its intended function of pest control is called enhanced biodegradation or accelerated degradation.
An understanding of the soil, biochemical, and microbial factors and the interactions involved that bring about enhanced biodegradation is lacking. Application to an agricultural field of a pesticide that fails to perform as expected can result in large financial losses. On the other hand, if the process of enhanced biodegradation were clearly understood, it could be applied to cases where compounds must be rapidly reduced in their detrimental effect. The persistence of a pesticide in soil causes different types of problems. If the pesticide remains in soil for a long period of time it may (i) be assimilated by plants and accumulate in edible portions, (ii) be transported with eroding soil particles or with surface and subsurface waters to locations where its presence may cause harm or (iii) it may accumulate in the animal food chain and change the ecological balance of nature. Compounds that are short-lived in the environment are less likely to achieve these fates. Metabolism of Pesticides in Soil. Metabolism of pesticides in soil may be classified into two main categories. The first category is defined by the ability of the chemical to support microbial growth by supplying nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen, as well as supplying a source of energy. The presence of the pesticide will cause a rise in numbers of the microbial subpopulation that can utilize the chemical while at the same time bringing about the disappearance of the pesticide from the soil. Microorganisms of this type can be isolated from soil through enrichment techniques. The second category of metabolic processes is called cometabolism. The pesticide is degraded but does not serve as a source of energy or nutrients. Heterotrophs of this sort cannot be isolated by enrichment culture techniques. Martin Alexander has outlined six different classes of reactions that result in partial or total transformation of a pesticide molecule. Detoxification is the conversion of an inhibitory molecule to a nontoxic product. Complete mineralization is the extreme case of detoxification. However, more common is the removal of a functional group from the pesticide molecule.
Degradation is the transformation of a complex substrate molecule to simple products and is often considered synonymous with mineralization. A reaction that results in making the pesticide more complex by combining with itself or other soil compounds is called conjugation, complex formation, or addition reactions. Oxidative coupling is an example of this class of reactions. Activation is the conversion of a nontoxic substrate or a pesticide precursor to a toxic molecule. For example the insecticide phorate is transformed in soil to give metabolites that are also toxic to insects. A changing of the spectrum of toxicity is another reaction in which pesticides may participate. Some pesticides may be toxic to one group of organisms but may be metabolized to become toxic to completely different group of, and possibly nontarget, organisms. Metabolic pathways of pesticide degradation have been established in the laboratory in model systems involving pure cultures for a large number of pesticides. These "type reactions" are very useful in making educated guesses about the types of compounds that may be formed in soil during the degradation of a specific pesticide molecule. However, the type reactions do not allow us to make predictions about which step is the rate-limiting step in the overall degradation process, and thus, which metabolic products may accumulate in the soil. Yet in view of the large number of chemicals that eventually reach the soil and the inability to test each one rapidly and thoroughly, the ability to predict the metabolic fates and products by applying type reactions to the chemical of interest has utility. The rate at which a pesticide degrades in soil is subject to a number of variables. Five conditions have been outlined which must be met before a pesticide molecule may be degraded. These conditions include: 1. an organism effective in metabolizing a pesticide molecule must live or be capable of living in the soil, 2. the compound must be in a chemical and physical form suitable for degradation, 3. the chemical must be located in the same environment as the active agent, e.g. a
microbial cell or an extracellular enzyme, of degradation, 4. the compound must be capable of inducing formation of the enzymes or enzymes appropriate for detoxification - low solubility or low concentration of the pesticide and low uptake into the microbial cell may result in lack of induction, and 5. environmental conditions such as ph, temperature, and organic matter must be suitable for the degrading microorganisms to proliferate and the enzyme to operate. If any of these conditions are not met, the pesticide will not readily be decomposed and may persist in the soil environment for long periods of time. The factors that control the rate of degradation of pesticides in soil are characteristic of the soil, microorganism, and the pesticide molecule. An understanding of the direct and indirect effect of all three factors must exist before accurate assessments of the ecological impact of pesticides in the soil can be made.