1 Sentences A sentence is a group of words, a stand-alone unit, that makes complete sense on its own. It must start with a capital letter and end with a full stop - the full stop represents a complete break. It should answer a particular question such as who, what, or when. It must have a subject and a verb. Golden Rule 1 One main idea in one sentence Golden Rules Golden Rule 2 Golden Rule 3 Never start a sentence without knowing how you are going to finish it. Think of the person reading the essay. This person needs to understand what you have written but yet cannot ask you any questions. Avoid distortions of meaning as a result of bad word order Last night Helen went to see Elton John in a new dress. WRONG Who was wearing a dress? Last night, in a new dress, Helen went to see Elton John. CORRECT Rugby is a game played by men with oddly-shaped balls. WRONG Really??? Rugby is a game with oddly-shaped balls, played by men. CORRECT
Sentence Construction Simple sentences (consist of a single main clause) These contain one verb (doing word). Compound sentences (consist of two or more main clauses) These are made up of two or more simple sentences joined by a conjunction (words such as 'and', 'but', 'yet', 'or', etc) or glued together by punctuation (e.g. semi colons or colons). SENTENCES Phrases A phrase is a group of words that does not make complete sense on its own and does not contain a verb. It is not a complete sentence. e.g. up the hill round the bend mad as a hatter Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains a verb. Complex sentences A complex sentence is made up of a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses. Each clause always contains a verb. 2
A sentence has two parts: The person or thing that the sentence is about, called the subject, predicate. What is written or said about the subject, called the predicate Example: Bob fell off his motorbike Bob is the subject, the rest is the predicate. (The predicate predicate always includes the verb of the sentence). Simple sentences: (consist of a single main clause) These contain one verb Example. verb. They have one subject and one predicate. The boy kicks kicks the football. Compound sentences: (consist of two or more main clauses) They are made up of two or more simple sentences joined by a conjunction (words such as and, but, yet, or, etc) or separated by punctuation (e.g. semicolons and colons). Example 1: The ship hit the rocks. It sank to the bottom of the sea. Becomes: The ship hit the rocks and it sank to the bottom of the sea. Simple sentences. Compound sentence. Example 2: Jane likes swimming. Fred likes to play tennis. Tom does not like to do anything at all. Becomes: Jane likes swimming, Fred likes to play tennis but Tom does not like to do anything at all. 3
Phrases A phrase is a group of words that does not make complete sense on its own and does not contain a verb. It is not a complete sentence. Example: up the mountain you need to add a subject you need to add a verb the climber struggled Complete sentence The climber struggled up the mountain. Clauses A clause is a group of words that contains a verb. Example: when she went shopping But, in this case, you need to add another clause for it to make sense. Example Sue bought a new dress when she went shopping. Here we see that Sue bought a new dress is both a clause and a sentence in its own right, unlike when she went shopping, which is only a clause. This is because there are two types of clause. Types of clauses: There are two types of clause, a main clause and a subordinate clause. The most important is the main clause this can make sense on its own. e.g. Richard ate five cream cakes A subordinate clause is dependent on the main clause for its meaning e.g. because he was hungry 4
Complex sentences A complex sentence is made up of a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses. Each clause always contains a verb. Example (The words in bold italics are verbs.) The man limped because his leg hurt. Complex sentence. The man limped (main clause) This makes sense on its own. because his leg hurt (subordinate clause) This doesn t. Example (The words in bold italics are verbs.) Rose, who was a greedy girl, ate five cakes when she came home from school. Rose ate five cakes (main clause) who was a greedy girl (subordinate clause) when she came home from school (subordinate clause) beginning or end of a sentence. Subordinate clauses can come at the Example (The subordinate clauses are in italics.) She took her dog with her wherever she went. Wherever she went she took her dog with her. You can have a subordinate clause at the beginning, the main clause in the middle and the other subordinate clause at the end. Example. When Tom got up he put on his brown suit which was very smart. 5
Identifying Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses (can you rearrange the sentence?) 1. On Sunday we heard a chaffinch singing we have several that come into our garden for crumbs. 2. There has been serious flooding the school will be closing early pupils will be provided with transport home. 3. Because they add information, adverbs (e.g. quickly) are a close relation to adjectives (e.g. pretty). 4. We had a day out in Beverley which is where Bob was born. 5. We checked out his usual hiding place where he goes when he wants to be alone. 6. While it continues to rain the school will remain closed 7. When I am hungry I like to eat pie. 8. I m going to the party whether or not you want to come too. 9. Jim, who s good with computers, fixed my PC when it broke down. Which/That? 1. The hotel that/which Helen stayed at has burnt down. 2. The Imperial Hotel in Brighton, that/which Helen stayed at last year, has burnt down. 3. I had an epiphany that/which gave me a sense of inner peace. 6
Checklist Simple and Compound Sentences: If any parts of your sentence can stand alone (make sense on their own) they are main clauses and could be made into a sentence by themselves. However, they can be added to other main clauses by the use of words like so, and or but, for example. EXAMPLE The patient stopped breathing so I shouted for the nurse. EXAMPLE The patient stopped breathing. I shouted for the nurse. Complex Sentences: If parts of the sentence do not make sense by themselves they are called subordinate clauses. They are called this because they cannot stand alone. EXAMPLE This is the patient who stopped breathing. (main clause is underlined). BUT remember to watch out for misplaced clauses! EXAMPLE - She was arrested by police wearing no knickers BBC report. 7
Making the subject and verb agree The main subject and its associated verb often become separated from each other. They should always agree in number; that is to say, a singular subject should always take a singular verb and a plural subject a plural verb. So, if you have a singular subject, you must have a singular verb. Plural subjects need a verb that is plural. Singular: This cake is stale. cake = singular subject. is = singular verb. Plural: These cakes are stale cakes = plural subject are = plural verb Examples: We was / were furious at the umpire s crazy decision. Fifteen paintings was / were sold at the auction last week. But, look what happens when we collectivise the subjects: s The team was furious at the umpire s crazy decision. The collection of fifteen paintings was sold at the auction last week. N.B. The singular verb is now the correct form to use because there is one team and one collection. If you have difficulty deciding if a verb should be singular or plural, find the subject (the person or thing the sentence is about), and ask if it is singular or plural. N. B. Words like anyone, everyone, someone, no one, and each are singular and take a singular verb. Words like many, both, few and several are plural and take a plural verb. Verb and Subject Agreeing 1. The box containing the toys was/were badly damaged. 2. In the large cardboard box is/are the Year 2 exam papers. 3. The Prime Minister, accompanied by several aides, was/were entertained by President Clinton at the White House. 4. Every man, woman and child is/are requested to assemble in the courtyard. 5. A thousand visitors is/are not unusual on an average weekend. 8
Word order in sentences Think carefully about where you place certain words they should be immediately in front of the words they modify. For example, the word 'only' when used as an adverb (adverb = to modify, or tell more about, the meaning of the verb) should be placed before its associated verb. Example based on the word just. Have a look at how the meaning changes. I just told my mother what I had seen Meaning (I recently told my mother) I told just my mother what I had seen (I told only my mother) I told my mother just what I had seen (I told my mother exactly what I had seen) I told my mother what I had just seen. (I told my mother what I had recently seen) Exercise There are many possible positions for 'only' in the sentence given below. What are they and how is the meaning affected? I spoke to my tutor yesterday. Remember to think carefully about your word order Examples: The teacher kept the child who misbehaved in the corner. We saw some flowers walking around the field. I heard the seagulls near the cliffs that were screeching. We have a parrot in a cage that talks. I saw you in my underwear. The boxer aimed a blow at his opponent's jaw, which slipped off and hit him on the shoulder. 9
Consider rewriting this last sentence unambiguously. It could be written: The blow, which the boxer had aimed at his opponent's jaw, slipped off and hit his opponent's shoulder. Use of pronouns It is important to place pronouns as near as possible to the nouns they represent, otherwise the meaning can become confused. Pronouns 1. The teacher told the children to pick up all the papers and then she put them in the bin. 2. The shark-spotting helicopter apparently failed to see the shark, although it was circling over the bathers. 3. If the baby doesn't thrive on raw milk, boil it. 4. There are some sticking plasters in my desk, which I keep for emergencies. 5. As she s a clever girl, Katie copied what Jayne was doing. 6. Clive shouted at Alistair after he d been to the shops. Personal Pronouns - Subject or Object? 1. I/me like he/him and he/him likes I/me 2. Bob and I/me are off to the café for some cake. 3. Whom/Who wants another piece of pie? 4. Whom/Who is this parcel for? For whom/who is this parcel? 5. It is not up to David and I/me to make the decision. 6. The public expect we/us firemen to be at the scene of the fire within minutes. 10
Spoken and Loose English - what s wrong with these? 1. You might of told me the party was cancelled. 2. Bert always drove real careful, and was proud of his record 3. If there s one think I really know about - it s pie. 4. This is the bike what he bought me for Christmas. 5. She can type faster than what I can. 6. Would you mind if I use your toilet? 7. Finish your work quick. You write too slow. 8. Ain t nobody here but us chickens. 9. She was sat there for hours. 10. Let s share this fairly between the four of us. 11
Extras what s wrong with these? 1. The reason that we are now going to the restaurant is due to the fact that we have not eaten all day and we are hungry as we have not had any food. 2. If you does not attend school regularly, one must endeavour to catch up on missed work. 3. Being Sunday, I don t have to get up early. 4. While standing at the bus-stop, some youths approached me and started threatening me. 5. Playing in the middle of the road, the car just missed the children. 6. We will be visiting London where we are seeing the Dome and the Tower. 7. We went to the cinema, watched the film, and then are going home. 8. Is this having the same effect/affect on you as it is on me? 9. How do you think this will effect/affect you? 10. Is this the effect/affect you were expecting? 11. While this depiction is no longer acceptable it does demonstrate the bigotry of the time. What s the Difference (what do they mean)? 1. However, you can do it. 2. However you can do it. 12