GPGPU. General Purpose Computing on. Diese Folien wurden von Mathias Bach und David Rohr erarbeitet

GPGPU General Purpose Computing on Graphics Processing Units Diese Folien wurden von Mathias Bach und David Rohr erarbeitet Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Roundup possibilities to increase computing performance increased clock speed more complex instructions improved instruction throughput (caches, branch prediction, ) vectorization parallelization Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-2

Possibilities and Problems increased clock speed power consumption / cooling limited by state of the art lithography more complex instructions require more transistors / bigger cores negative effect on clock speed caches, pipelining, branch prediction, out of order execution, require many more transistors vectorization / parallelization difficult to program Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-3

Possible features for an HPC chip parallelism is obligatory both vectorization and many core seems reasonable huge vectors are easier to realize than a large number of cores (e.g. only 1 instruction ti decoder d per vector processor) Independent cores can process independent instructions which might be better for some algorithms complex instructions, out of order execution, etc. Hardware requirements are huge not suited for a many core design as the additional hardware is required multiple times clock speed limited anyway, not so relevant in HPC as performance originates from parallelism Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-4

Design Guideline for a GPU Use many cores in parallel l Each core on its own has SIMD capabilities Keep the cores simple (Rather use many simple cores instead of fewer (faster) complex cores) This means: No out of order execution, etc. Use the highest clock speed possible, but do not focus on frequency Pipelining has no excessive register requirement and is required for a reasonable clock speed, therefore a small pipeline is used Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-5

Graphics Processing Unit Architectures Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Todays graphics pipeline Model / View Transformation Per-Vertex Lightning Tesselation Clipping Display Texturing Rasterization Projection Executed per primitive Polygon, Vertex, Pixel Highly parallel l Everything but rasterization (and display) is software Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

A generic GPU architecture One hardware for all stages Modular setup Streaming Hardware Hardware scheduling Dynamic Register Count Processing Elements contain FPUs Control Contr rol Co ontrol COne hardware for all PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE Register PE PEFile PE PE Register File Register Texture FileCache / Local Mem Texture Cache / Local Mem Texture Cache Local Mem GPU Memory Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Two application examples Vector Addition Reduction Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Generic architecture: Vector addition GM OP RF OP RF OP RF OP GM A B ld(a,0) ld(b,0) + st(c,0) C 0 9 0 _ 0 9 9 9 9 ld(a,1) 1 8 1 _ ld(b,1) 1 8 + 9 8 st(c,1) 9 ld(a,2) ld(b,2) 2 7 2 _ 2 7 + 9 7 st(c,2) 9 3 6 ld(a,3) 3 _ ld(b,3) 36 + 96 st(c,3) 9 4 5 ld(a,4) 4 _ ld(b,4) 4 5 + 9 5 st(c,0) 9 5 4 ld(a,5) 5 _ ld(b,5) 5 4 + 9 4 st(c,1) 9 6 3 ld(a,6) 6 _ ld(b,6) 6 3 + 9 3 st(c,2) 9 7 2 ld(a,7) 7 _ ld(b,7) 72 92 9 + st(c,3) The examples use only two compute units with 4 PEs each to make the visualization easier to overview. We will also skip (imlicit) global memory ops and register file content in the next examples. Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Generic architecture: Reduction OP SM OP SM OP A +(A0,A8) +(SM0,SM2) +(SM0,SM1) 01 1 10 +(A1,A9) 2 3 5 +(SM1,SM3) 18 NOOP +(A2,A10) 4 5 9 NOOP 9 NOOP 6 7 +(A3,A11) A11) 13 NOOP 13 NOOP 8 9 +(A4,A12) 17 +(SM0,SM2) 42 +(SM0,SM1) 10 11 +(A5,A13) 21 +(SM1,SM3) 50 NOOP 12 13 +(A6,A14) 25 NOOP 25 NOOP 14 15 +(A7,A15) 29 NOOP 29 NOOP 6 7No syncing between compute units Second pass (with only one compute unit) to add results of compute units. C 28 92 Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

SIMT Groups of threads executed in lock-step Lock-step makes it similar to SIMD Own Register Set for each Processing Element Vector-Width given by FPUs, not register size Gather/Scatter not restricted (see reduction example) No masking required for conditional execution More flexible register (re)usage (0,1,2,3) RegA (4567) (4,5,6,7) RegB + + + + add(a,b) (4,6,8,10) RegA add(a,b) a b a b a b a b 0 4 1 5 2 6 3 7 + + + + 54 65 86107 Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

HyperThreading Hardware Scheduler Zero-Overhead Thread Switch Schedules thread groups onto processing units Latency Hiding E.g. NVIDIA Tesla: 400 to 500 cycles memory latency 4 cycles per thread group 100 thread groups (320 threads) on processing group to completely hide latency 1 Thread Group READ READ 6 Thread Groups READ READ READ READ READ READ READ In the example each thread issues a number of reads as required e.g. in vector addition example. The read latency is assumed equivalent to executing 8 thread groups. Colors distinguish groups. Thread groups are to be understood as (concurrently scheduled to the current processing unit) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Stream Computing Limited execution control Specify number of workitem and thread group size No synchronization between thread groups Allows scaling over devices of different size Relaxed memory consistency Memory only consistent within thread Consistent for thread group at synchronization points Not consistent between thread groups No synchronization possibility anyway Save silicon for FPUs. Globally consistant memory only at end of execution. Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Register Files / Local Memory / Caches Register File Dynamic Register Set Size Many threads with low register usage Good to hide memory latencies High throughput Less threads with high register usage Only suited for compute intense Local Memory Data exchange within thread group Spatial locality cache CPU caches work with temporal locality Reduces memory transaction count for multiple threads reading close addresses 2D / 3D locality requires special memory layout Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Schematic of NVIDIA GT200b chip many core design (30 multiprocessors) 8 ALUs per multiprocessor (vector width: 8) Afull-featured featured Coherent read/write cache would be too complex. Instead several small special purpose caches are employed. Future generations have general purpose L2 Cache. Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-16

NVIDA Tesla Architecture Close to generic architecture Lockstep size: 16 1 DP FPU per Compute Unit 1 SFU per Compute Unit 3 Compute Units grouped into Thread Processing Cluster PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE lpe PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE PE SFU PE PE DPFPU PE PE PE PELocal PEMem SFU SFU PE DPFPU DPFPU PE PELocal PEMem SFU SFU Register DPFPU File Local Local Mem Mem SFU Register Register DPFPU File File Local Mem Register File File Register File Contro Contr trol Con ontrol C ontrol Texture Cache Texture Cache Global Memory Atomics GPU Memory Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

ATI Cypress Architecture VLIW PEs 4 SP FPUs 1 Special Function Unit 1 to 2 DP ops per cycle HD 5870 20 Compute Units 16 Stream Cores each 1600 FPUs total Lockstep size: 64 Global Memory Atomics Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

VLIW = Very Long Instruction Word VLIW PE is similar to SIMD core FPUs can execute different ops Data for FPUs within VLIW must be independent Compiler need to detect this to generate proper VLIW Often results in SIMD style code / using vector types, e.g. float4 A B C (0,1,2,3) (10,11,12,13) (+,+,+,+) (10,12,14,16) (4,5,6,7) (14,15,16,17) (+,+,+,+) (18,20,22,24) (8,9,10,11) (18,19,20,21) (+,+,+,+) (26,28,30,32) (12,13,14,15) (22,23,24,25) (+,+,+,+) (34,36,38,40) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

NVIDIA Fermi Architecture PE = CUDA core 2 Cores fused for DP ops 2 Instruction Decoders per Compute Unit Lockstep size: 32 Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

NVIDIA Fermi Architecture Large L2 cache Unusual Shared Read-Write No synchronization between Compute Units Global Memory Atomics exist Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

GPUs in Comparison NVIDIA Tesla NVIDIA Fermi AMD HD5000 FPUs 240 448 1600 Performance SP / Gflops 933 1030 2720 Performance DP / Gflops 78 515 544 Memory Bandwidth / GiB/s 102 144 153.6 Local Scratch Memory / KiB 16 16 48 32 Cache (L2) / MiB N/A 10.5 N/A (Texture only) (Texture only) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten 22

SIMD Recall SIMD (Single Instruction ti Multiple l Data) one instruction stream processed multiple data streams in parallel often called vectorization Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-23

SIMD v.s. SIMT new programming model introduced d by NVIDIA SIMT: Single Instruction Multiple Threads resembles programming a vector processor instead of vectors threads are use BUT: as only 1 instruction decoder is available all threads have to execute the same instruction SIMT is in fact an abstraction for vectorization SIMT code looks like many core code BUT: the vector-like structure of the GPU must be kept in mind to achieve optimal performance Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-24

SIMT example how to add 2 vectors in memory the corresponding vectorized code would be: dest = src1 + src2; the SIMT way: each element of the vector in memory is processed by an independent thread each thread is assigned a private variable (called thread_id in this example) determining which element to process SIMT code: dest[thread_id] = src1[thread_id] + src2[thread_id]; dest, src1, and src2 are of course pointers and not vectors a number of threads equal to the vector size is started executing the above instruction in parallel Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-25

SIMD v.s. SIMT examples masked vector gather as example (Remember VC) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-26

SIMD v.s. SIMT examples SIMD masked vector gather (vector example) int_v dst; int_m mask; int_m *addr; code: dst(mask) = load_vector(addr); only one instruction executed by one thread on a data vector SIMT masked vector gather int dst; bool mask; int *addr; code: if (mask) dst = addr[thread_id]; multiple instructions executed by the threads in parallel source is a vector in memory, target is a set of registers but no vector-register register Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-27

SIMD v.s. SIMT comparison why use SIMT at all SIMT allows if-, else-, while-, and switch-statements etc. as commonly used in scalar code no masks required this makes porting code to SIMT easier especially code that has been developed to run on many core systems (e.g. using OpenMP, Intel TBB) can easily be adopted (see next example) SIMT primary (dis)advantages + easier portability / more opportunities for conditional code implizit vector nature of chip is likely to be not dealt with resulting in poor performance Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-28

SIMT threads threads within one multiprocessor usually more threads than ALUs are present on each multiprocessor this assures a good overall utilization (latency hiding: threads waiting for memory accesses to finish are replaced by the scheduler with other threads without any overhead) Thread count per multiprocessor is usually a multiple of the ALU count (only a minimum thread count can be defined) threads of different multiprocessors As only one instruction decoder is present, threads on one particular multiprocessor must execute common instructions threads of different multiprocessors are completely l independent d Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-29

Porting OpenMP Code simple OpenMP code #pragma omp parallel for for (int i = 0;i < max;i++) { //do something } SIMT code int i = thread_id; if (i < max) { //do something } Enough threads are started so that no loop is necessary the check for i < max is needed Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-30

Languages for GPGPU OpenGL / Direct3D first GPGPU approaches tried to encapsulate general problems in 3D graphics calculation, representing the source data by textures and encoding the result in the graphics rendered by the GPU not used anymore CUDA (Compute Unified Device Architecture) SIMT approach by NVIDIA OpenCL open SIMT approach by the Khronos Group that is platform independent (compare OpenCL) very similar to CUDA (CUDA still has more features) AMD / ATI Stream Based on Brook, recently AMD focuses in OpenCL Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-31

Languages for GPGPU OpenGL / Direct3D / Stream seem out-dated t d this course will focus primarily on OpenCL OpenCL is favored because it is an open framework more importantly OpenCL is platform independent, not even restricted to GPUs but also available for CPU (with auto- vectorization support) some notes will be made about CUDA especially where CUDA offers features, not available in OpenCL, such as: Full C++ support (CUDA offered limited functionality for C++ started from the beginning. Full C++ support is available as of version 3.0) this strongly suggest the application of CUDA when porting C++ codes support for DMA transfer using page-locked memory Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-32

OpenCL Introduction Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

OpenCL Introduction OpenCL distinguishes i between two types of functions regular host functions kernels (functions executed on the computing device) kernel - keyword in the following host will always refer to the CPU and the main memory device will identify the computing device and its memory, usually the graphics card (also a CPU can be the device when running OpenCL code on CPU. Then both host and device code executes in different threads on the CPU. The host thread is responsible for administrative tasks while the device threads do all the calculations) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-34

OpenCL Kernels / Subroutines Subroutines to initiate a calculation on the computing device a kernel must be called by a host function kernels can call other functions on the device but can obviously never call host functions the kernels are usually stored in plain source code and compiled at runtime (functions called by the kernel must be contained there too), then transferred to the device where they are executed (see example later) several third party libraries simplify this task Compilation OpenCL is platform independent and it is up to the compiler how to treat function calls. Usually calls are simply inlined Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-35

OpenCL Devices in OpenCL terminology several compute devices can be attached to a host (e.g. multiple graphics cards) each compute device can possess multiple compute units (e.g. the multiprocessors in the case of NVIDIA) each compute unit consists of multiple processing elements, which are virtual scalar processors each executing one thread Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

OpenCL Execution Configuration Kernels are executed the following way n*m kernel instances are created in parallel, which are called workitems (each is assigned a global ID [0,n*m-1]) work-items are grouped in n work-groups work groupes are indexed [0,n-1] each work-item is further identified by a local work-item-id inside its work group [0,m-1] thus the work-item can be uniquely identified using the global id or both the local- and the work-group-id The work-groups are distributed as follows all work-items within one work-group are executed concurrently within one compute unit Different work-groups may be executed simultaneously or sequentially on the same or different compute unit where the execution order is not well defined d Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

More Complex Execution Configuration OpenCL allows the indexes for the work-items and work-groups to be N-dimensional often well suited for some problems, especially image manipulation (recall that GPU originally render images) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-38

Command Queues OpenCL kernel calls are assigned to a command queue command queues can also contain memory transfer operations and barriers execution of command queues and the host code is asynchronous barriers can be used to synchronize the host with a queue tasks issued to command queues are executed in order Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-39

Realization of Execution Configuration consider n work-groups of m work-items each each compute unit must uphold at least m threads m is limited by the hardware scheduler (on NVIDIA GPUs the limit varies between 256 and 1024) if m is too small the compute unit might not be well utilized multiple work-groups (say k) can then be executed in parallel on the same compute unit (which then executed k*m threads) each work-item has a certain requirement for registers, memory, etc say each work-items requires l registers, then in total m*k*l registers must be available on the compute-unit this further limits the maximal number of threads Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-40

Platform Independent Realization register limitation and platform independence OpenCL code is platform independent and compiled at runtime apparantly this solves the problem with limited registers, because the compiler knows how many work-items to execute and can create code with reduced register requirement (up to a certain limit) no switch or parameter available that controls the register usage of the compiler, everything is decided d by runtime HOWEVER: register restriction leads to intermediate results being stored in memory and thus might result in poor performance Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-41

Register / Thread Trade-Off this can be discussed more concretely in the CUDA case, here the compiler is platform dependent and its behavior is well defined more registers result in faster threads more threads lead to a better overall utilization the best parameter has to be determined experimentally Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-42

Performance Impact of Register Usage Real World CUDA HPC Application (later in detail) ALICE HLT Online Tracker on GPU Performance for different thread- / register-counts Register and thread count is related as follows Registers 48 64 96 128 Threads 320 256 160 128 256 threads optimal Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-43

Summary of register benchmarks Optimal parameter was found experimentally It depends on the hardware Little influence possible in OpenCL code (as it is platform independent) CUDA allows for better utilization (as it is closer to the hardware) OpenCL optimizations i possible on compiler side (e.g. just in time recompilation, compare to JAVA) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-44

OpenCL kernel sizes Recall that functions are usually inlined Kernel register requirement commonly increases with amount of kernel source code (the compiler tries to eliminate registers at its best but often cannot assure the independence of variables that can share a register) Try to keep kernels small multiple small kernels executed sequentially usually perform better than one big kernel split tasks in small steps as possible Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-45

One more theoretical part: Memory no access to host main memory by device device memory itself divided into: global memory constant memory local l memory private memory before the kernel gets executed the relevant data must be transferred from the host to the device after the kernel execution the result is transferred back Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-46

Device Memory in Detail global l memory global memory is the main device memory (such as main memory for the host) can be written to and read from by all work-items and by the host through special runtime functions global memory may be cached depending on the device capabilities but should be considered slow (Even if it is cached, the cache is usually not as sophisticated as a usual CPU L1 cache. Slow still means transfer rates of more than 150 Gb/sec (for the newest generation NVIDIA Fermi cards). Random access however should be avoided at any case. Coalescing Rules to achieve optimal performance on NVIDIA cards will be explained later.) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-47

Device Memory in Detail constant t memory a region of global memory that remains constant during kernel execution often this allows for easier caching constant memory is allocated and written to by the host Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-48

Device Memory in Detail local l memory special memory that is shared among all work-items in one workgroup local memory is generally very fast atomic operations to local memory can be used to synchronize and share data between work-items when global memory is too slow and no cache is available it is a general practice to use local memory as an explicit (non transparent) global memory cache Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-49

Device Memory in Detail private memory as the name implies this is private for each work-item private memory is usually a region of global memory each thread requires its own private memory, so when executing n work-groups of m work-items each n*m*k bytes of global memory is reserved (with k the amount of private memory required by one thread) as global memory is usually big compared to private memory requirements, the available private memory is usually not exceeded if the compiler is short of registers it will swap register content to private memory Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-50

OpenCL Memory Summary global constant local memory private memory memory memory host dynamic allocation, dynamic allocation, dynamic allocation, no allocation, read/write read/write no access no access device no static static static allocation, allocation allocation allocation read/write read ony read/write read/write Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-51

Correspondance OpenCL / CUDA As already stated t OpenCL and CUDA resemble each other. However terminology differs: OpenCL host / compute device / kernel compute unit global memory constant memory local memory private memory work-item work-unit keyword for (sub)kernels: kernel command queue CUDA host / device / kernel multiprocessor global memory constant memory shared memory local memory thread block global ( device) stream Be carefull with local memory, as it refers to different memory types Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-52

Memory Realization the OpenCL specification does not define memory sizes and type (speed, etc.) we look at it in the case of CUDA (GT200b chip) memory (OpenCL terminology) Size Remarks global memory 1GB not cached, 100 Gb/sec constant memory 64 kb cached local memory 16 kb / very fast, when used with correct multiprocessor pattern as fast as registers private memory - part of global memory, considered slow Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-53

Memory Guidelines the following guidelines refer to the GT200b chip (for different chips the optimal memory usage might differ) store constants in constant memory wherever possible to benefit from the cache try not to use too many intermediate variables to save register space, better recalculate values try not to exceed the register limit, swapping registers to private memory is painful avoid private memory where possible use local memory where possible big datasets must be stored in global memory anyway, try to realize a streaming access, follow coalescing rules (see next sheet), and try to access the data only once Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-54

NVIDIA Coalescing Rules Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-55

Analysing Coalescing Rules example A resembles an aligned vector fetch with a swizzle example B is an unaligned vector fetch both access patterns commonly appear in SIMD applications as for vector-processors random gathers cause problems the vector-processor-like nature of the NVIDIA-GPU reappears Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-56

NVIDIA Local Memory Coalescing Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-57

Memory Consistency GPU memory consistency differs from what one is used from CPUs load / store order for global memory is not preserved among different compute-units the correct order can be ensured for threads within one particular compute-unit using synchronization / memory fences global memory coherence is only ensured after a kernel call is finished (when the next kernel starts, memory is consistent) there is no way to circumvent this!!! HOWEVER: different compute units can be synchronized using atomic operations As inter work-group synchronization is very expensive, try to divide the problem in small parts that are handled independently Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-58

From theory to application tasks required to execute an OpenCL kernel create the OpenCL context o query devices o choose device o etc. load the kernel source code (usually from a file) compile the OpenCL kernel transfer the source data to the device define the execution configuration execute the OpenCL kernel fetch the result from the device uninitialize the OpenCL context third party libraries encapsulate these tasks we will look at the OpenCL runtime functions in detail Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-59

OpenCL Runtime OpenCL is plain C currently Upcoming C++ interface for the host C++ for the device might appear in future versions The whole runtime documentation can be found at: http://www.khronos.org/opencl/ org/opencl/ The basic functions to create first examples will be presented in the lecture Some features will just be mentioned, have a look at the documentation to see how to use them!!! Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-60

OpenCL Runtime Functions (Context) //Set OpenCL platform, choose between different implementations ti / versions cl_int clgetplatformids (cl_uint num_entries, cl_platform_id *platforms, cl_uint *num_platforms) //Get List of Devices available in the current platform cl_int clgetdeviceids (cl_platform_id platform, cl_device_type device_type, cl_uint num_entries, cl_device_id *devices, cl_uint *num_devices) //Get Information about an OpenCL device cl_int clgetdeviceinfo (cl_device_id device, cl_device_info param_name, size_ t param _ value_ size, void *param _ value, size_ t *param _ value_ size_ ret) //Create OpenCL context for a platform / device combination cl_context clcreatecontext (const cl_context_properties *properties, cl_uint num_devices, const cl_device_id id *devices, void (*pfn_notify)(const t char *errinfo, const void *private_info, size_t cb, void *user_data), void *user_data, cl_int *errcode_ret) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-61

Runtime Functions (Queues / Memory) //Create a command queue kernels will be assigned to later cl_command_queue clcreatecommandqueue (cl_context context, cl_device_id device, cl_command_queue_properties properties, cl_int *errcode_ret) //Allocate memory on the device cl_mem clcreatebuffer (cl_context context, cl_mem_flags flags, size_t size, void *host_ptr, cl_int *errcode_ret) flags regulate read / write access for kernels host memory can be defined as storage, however the OpenCL runtime is allowed to cache host memory in device memory during kernel execution device memory can be allocated as buffer or as image buffers are plain memory segments accessible by pointers images are 2/3-dimensional objects (textures / frame buffers) accessed by special functions, storage format opaque for user Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-62

Runtime Functions (Memory) //Read memory from device to host cl_int clenqueuereadbuffer (cl_command_queue command_queue, cl_mem buffer, cl_bool blocking_read, size_t offset, size_t cb, void *ptr, cl_uint num_events_in_wait_list, const cl_event *event_wait_list, cl_event *event) //Write to device memory from host cl_int clenqueuewritebuffer ( ) //same parameters reads / writes can be blocking / non-blocking (Blocking commands are enqueued, the host process wait for the command to finish before it continues. Non blocking commands do not pause host execution) the event parameters force the operation to start only after specified events occurred on the device events occur for example when kernel executions finish, they are used for synchronization Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-63

Runtime Functions (Kernel creation) //Load a program from a string cl_program clcreateprogramwithsource (cl_context context, cl_uint count, const char **strings, const size_t *lengths, cl_int *errcode_ret) //Compile the program cl_int clbuildprogram (cl_program program, cl_uint num_devices, const cl_device_id id *device_list, const char *options, void (*pfn_notify)(cl_program, void *user_data), void *user_data) //Create an executable kernel out of a kernel function in the compiled program cl_kernel clcreatekernel (cl_program program, const char *kernel_name, cl_int *errcode_ret) //Define kernel parameters for execution cl_int clsetkernelarg (cl_kernel kernel, cl_uint arg_index, size_t arg_size, const void *arg_value) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-64

Runtime Functions (Kernel execution) //Load a program from a string cl_int clenqueuendrangekernel (cl_command_queue command_queue, cl_kernel kernel, cl_uint work_dim, const size_t *global_work_offset, const size_t *global_work_size, const size_t *local_work_size, cl_uint num_events_in_wait_list, const cl_event *event_wait_list, cl_event *event) work_dim is the dimensionality of the work groups global_work_size and local_work_size are the number of work items globally and in a work group respectively. these parameters are array ranging from 0 to work_dim 1to allow multi-dimensional work-groups the local_work_size parameters must evenly divide the global_work_size parameters Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-65

Runtime Functions (Kernel execution) examples for kernel execution configurations simple 1-dimensional example: 2 work groups of 16 work_items each work_dim = 1, local_work_size = (16), global_work_size = (32) more complex 2-dimensional example: 4*2 work groups of 8*8 work_items each work_dim = 1, local_work_size=(4,4), global_work_size = (32, 16) 8 32 work group work item 16 8 Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-66

Memory Access by Kernels Memory objects can be accesses by kernels New keywords for kernel parameters global //pointer to global memory constant //pointer to constant memory Assigning a buffer object to a global variable will result in a pointer to the address //Used for images not buffers, see reference for details read_only write_only Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-67

OpenCL First Example, Vector Addition addvector.cl : kernel void addvector( global int *src_1, global int *src_2, global int *dst, cl_int vector_size) { for (int i = get_global_id(0);i < vector_size;i += get_global_size(0)) } { } dst [i] = src_1[i] + src_2[i]; global id and size can be obtained by get_global_id _ / _size consider how the work is distributed amont the threads (consecutive threads access data in adjacent memory addresses, following the coalescing rules) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-68

OpenCL First Example, Vector Addition addvector.cpp : cl_int ocl_error, num_platforms = 1, num_devices = 1, vector_size= 1024; clgetplatformids(num_platforms, &platforms NULL); clgetdeviceids(platform, CL_DEVICE_TYPE_ALL, num_devices, &device, NULL); cl_context context = clcreatecontext(null, 1, &device, NULL, NULL, &ocl_error); cl_command_queue command_queue = clcreatecommandqueue(context, device, NULL, &ocl_error); cl_program program = clcreateprogramwithsource(context, 1, (const &sourcecode, NULL, &ocl_error); clbuildprogram(program, 1, &device, -cl-mad-enable, NULL, NULL); cl_kernel kernel = clcreatekernel(program, "addvector", &ocl_error); cl_mem vec1 = clcreatebuffer(context, CL_MEM_READ_WRITE, vector_size* sizeof(int), NULL, &ocl_error); char**) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-69

OpenCL First Example, Vector Addition clenqueuewritebuffer(command_queue, vec1, CL_FALSE, 0, vector_size* sizeof(int), host_vector_1, 0, NULL, NULL); clsetkernelarg(kernel, 0, sizeof(cl_mem), &vec1); // //... Vector 2, Destination Memory // clsetkernelarg(kernel, 3, sizeof(cl_int), int) vector_size); size_t local_size = 8; size_t global_size = 32; clenqueuendrangekernel(command_queue, kernel, 1, NULL, &global_size, &local_size, 0, NULL, NULL; clenqueuereadbuffer(command_queue, vec_result, CL_TRUE, 0, vector_size * sizeof(int), host_vector[2], 0, NULL, NULL); Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-70

OpenCL First Example, Vector Addition Vector addition admittedly dl very simple example OpenCL overhead for creating the kernel etc. seems huge Extended / documented source code available on the lecture homepage Can now be easily extended to more complex kernels (will be done in the turorials) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-71

OpenCL Optimizations Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

Computing Device Utilization Using OpenCL the primary computing device is no longer the CPU (still the CPU can contribute to the total computing power or the CPU can be the OpenCL computing device on its own) Therefore the main objective is to keep the OpenCL computing device as busy as possible This includes two objectives Firstly: Ensure the device is totally utilized during kernel execution (This includes the prevention of latencies due to memory access as well as the utilization of all threads of the vector-like processor) Secondly: Make sure that there is no delay between kernel executions Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-73

Computing Device Utilization We will now discuss some criteria i that t should be fulfilled to ensure both of the previous requisitions Bad device utilization during kernel execution mostly originates from: Memory latencies when the device waits for data from global memory Non coalesced memory access where multiple memory accesses have to be issued by the threads instead of only a single access work-group serialization: As only one instruction decoder is present, performance decreases when different work-items follow different branches in conditional code Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-74

Memory Latencies OpenCL devices have an integrated t feature to hide memory latencies The number of threads started greatly exceeds the number of threads that can be executed in parallel For each instruction cycle without any overhead the scheduler selects threads that are ready to execute Try to use a large number of parallel threads OpenCL devices do not necessarily have a general purpose cache Random memory access is very expensive, streaming access is even more important than for usual CPUs Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-75

Memory Coalescing Streaming access can usually be achieved by following coalescing rules Often data structures must be changed to allow for coalescing Often arrays of structures should be replaced by structures of arrays Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-76

Memory Coalescing Data Structures Consider the following examples struct int4{int x, y, z, w}; int4 data[thread_count]; kernel example1 { data[thread_id].x++; data[thread_id].y--; ]y } x1 y1 z1 w1 x2 y2 z2 w2 Access to x[thread_id] skips 3 out of 4 memory addresses int x[thread_count], y[thread_count], z[thread_count], kernel example2 { x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 y2 y3 y4 x[thread_id]++; Access to x[thread_id] affects a y[thread_id]--; continous memory segment } Example 1 requires 4 times the amount of accesses example 2 needs (for a thread count of 4), the ratio is worse for higher thread counts Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-77

Random memory access Many algorithms have random access schemes restricted to a bounded memory segment If this segment fits in local memory it can be cached Random memory access to local memory is almost as fast as sequential access (e.g. except for the possibility of bank conflicts for NVIDIA chips) Caching to local memory can be performed in a coalesced way Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-78

Work-group serialization Consider the following code int algorithm(data_structure& data, bool mode) {. if (mode) data.x++; else data.x--; } kernel example(data_structure* data) { if (data[thread_id].y > 1) algorithm(data[thread_id], true); else algorithm(data[thread_id], false); } Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-79

Work-group serialization Analyzing the example The check for data[thread_id].y > 1 might lead to different results and thus different branches for different threads As only one instruction decoder is present, both branches have to be executed one after another Only if the result is the same for all work-items in a work group, execution is restricted t to a single branch This problem is called work-group serialization Except for the different behavior depending on the mode flag both branches involve identical code In the given example it will possibly halve the performance This might become worse with more complex branches conditional execution where branches contain complex code should be avoided Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-80

Work-group serialization Improved version of above example int algorithm(data_structure& data, bool mode) {. if (mode) data.x++; else data.x--; } kernel example(data_structure* data) { algorithm(data[thread_id], data[thread_id] > 1); } This clearly gives the same result, but the outer branch was removed Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-81

Work-group serialization Even more improved version of above example int algorithm(data_structure& data, bool mode) {. data.x += mode; } kernel example(data_structure* data) { algorithm(data[thread_id], id] data[thread_id] >1); } Often conditions can be exchanged by other statements without branches Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-82

Work-group serialization Allowed branches At the end it shall be noted, that conditions where different work-groups execute different branches do not influence the performance kernel example() { if (work_group_id % 2) algorithm1(); else algorithm2(); } As different work groups do not execute simultaneously on one compute unit, the restriction to one instruction decoder is not relevant Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-83

Common Source Common Source refers to a programming paradigm simplifying application development instead of an OpenCL performance optimization If different versions of an algorithm shall be created for OpenCL and another platform, it is desirable to stay with one common source code This is possible by placing the actual algorithm in a function that is included twice, in the OpenCL file and another C++ file Only two different wrapper functions are required and must be maintained Changes to the algorithm itself are done only once Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-84

Common Source Example include.cppcpp int algorithm(data_structure& data) {. } opencl.cl #include include.cpp kernel void example(data_structure* data) { algorithm(data[thread_id]); id]); } other_ version.cpp #include include.cpp void example(data_structure* data) { } for (i = 0;i < DATA_SIZE;i++) algorithm(data[i]); Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-85

Real World HPC application Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten

ALICE HLT TPC Online Tracker We will now look at a real world HPC application that t was portet to GPGPU The ALICE HLT Online Tracker is responsible for real- time track reconstruction for the ALICE experiment at LHC (CERN) Problems emerging when porting the code and solutions will be presented Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-87

ALICE HLT TPC Online Tracker First question: Which h language to choose Some facts: A C++ tracker CPU tracker code already existed It was desired to have a common code base for CPU / GPU The CPU code relies on AliROOT (which relies on ROOT) and therefore C++ was obligatory Using CUDA for the GPU tracker seemed the appropriate solution (OpenCL was also far away from a stable release) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-88

Track Reconstruction What is tracking In the LHC particles (protons or heavy-ions) are accelerated to yet unreach energies and afterwards collide in the center of the detectors. In the collision (imagine an explosion) lots of daughter particles are produced that shall be analysed Measuring the trajectories t of fthe particles is a crucial part of fthis analyzation How to measure the trajectories It is impossible to measure the particle trajectory directly Instead only some discrete points of the trajectories can be measured, these are called clusters The crucial part now, is to regain the trajectories from these clusters Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-89

Track Reconstruction trajectories trajectories and only the clusters cluster The third graph shows the input data for the tracking algorithm. It is now a combinatorial challenge to restore the original tracks. Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-90

Tracking Algorithm How to extract t trajectories t from 3-dimensional i spacepoints The CPU tracking algorithm was originally designed to run on parallel computer The Algorithm first determines some track candidates (tracklets), by fitting straight lines to 3 adjacent clusters These candidates can then be extrapolated, and new clusters close to the extrapolated tracks can be added Extrapolation and fitting for different candidates can be performed in parallel l This seems ideal for massive parallel computing, the more tracks the better Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-91

How to fit / extrapolate Fitting and extrapolating ti in a free 3-dimensional i space is complicated The following assumption is made to simplify and speed up the tracking As tracks are supposed to originate from the interaction point fitting and extrapolation ti is done in radial direction only radial space coordinates are discrete with 159 values possible (called rows) angular coordinates in every row are continuous Extrapolation is done in two steps: upwards and downwards (to the next / to the previous row) to extend the initial candidate in both directions In each extrapolation step the continuous angular coordinates for the next / previous row are calculated Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-92

Tracking Proton Events Real Proton-Proton P t collision i at ALICE Does not look so complex? Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-93

Tracking Heavy-Ion Events Simulated lead-lead l d collision: i Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-94

Tracking Heavy-Ion Events Tracks reconstructed t in lead-lead l d collision i Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-95

Tracking Heavy-Ion Events To make things even worse: central pb-pb b Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-96

Tracking on GPU Initial GPU tracker performance (first working port GTX285 v.s. Nehalem 3.2 GHz) Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-97

Performance analysis GPU tracker is not faster than a state-of-the-art t th tcpu In contrast the speed-ups presented by NVIDIA this looks frustrating BUT: This is an optimized CPU application, and no 10 year old fortran code, so no speedup of 10+ should be expected FURTHER: This was the very first try, so let us examine how to improve the tracker Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-98

Performance analysis Remember GPU paradigm: Keep all GPU processors active Ensure a high workload during kernel execution Make sure that there is always a kernel in the queue that can be executed We will now apply these criteria to the tracker Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-99

Initial GPU Utilization Active GPU Threads for the First Implementation Active GPU Threads: 19% Colors represent Tracklet Constructor Steps: Black: Idle Blue: Track Fit Green: Track Extrapolation Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-100

Problem with First Implementation The tracks greatly differ in length Some candidates are immediately dropped Some candidates are extended d to up to 100 clusters In the first implementation every track candidate was handled by a different thread When some threads in a work-group have already dropped their track candidate while others have not, they are idling, because only one single instruction decoder is present It is better to stop the tracking in between, and exchange dropped candidates with new ones Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-101

Fixing GPU Utilization / Scheduling Idea: Introduce Tracklet Pools The set of 159 rows is divided into n row-blocks Tracklets are fitted and extrapolated for rows in one row-block only Afterwards the extrapolation is interrupted All tracklets that are still active (the track has not ended yet) are stored in the tracklet pool of the next row block. However, if the extrapolation ti is finished, i the track is stored The threads then fetch new tracklets from a tracklet pool This way, after every interrupt, the active tracklets are redistributed among the threads, and no threads have to idle when their track has ended Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-102

Improved GPU Utilization Active GPU Threads using Dynamic Scheduling Active GPU Threads: 62% Colors represent Tracklet Constructor Steps: Black: Idle Blue: Track Fit Green: Track Extrapolation Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-103

Trackled Scheduling Summary Tracklet Scheduling Before many threads were idling after a track has ended, but other threads in the same work-group were still extrapolating other tracks This could be overcome by introducing a tracklet scheduler, which redistributes the tracklets among the threads Tracklet Scheduling Performance Without the scheduling only 19% of the threads were active Occupancy rose to 62% using the scheduler GPU utilization increased by 226% Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-104

Initialization / Output Tracker Initialization / Tracklet Output t Some steps of the tracking algorithm cannot be easily ported to run on GPU The cluster data is fetched from the network and the final tracks are sent to other nodes in the network The initial data received is converted to a format suitable for the tracking algorithm The conversion process touches every bit only one time rendering a transfer to the GPU non-performant The same holds for the conversion of the tracklet output data Running Initialization, Tracking and Output in a loop iterating over events is not optimal The GPU is idling during initialization and output wasting a lot of computational performance Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-105

CPU / GPU pipelining Asynchronous Calculation l The initialization / output of events on the CPU can overlap with the tracking of another event on the GPU There is no need that the transfer of data to the GPU is governed by the CPU Instead the data should be transferred using Direct Memory Access (DMA) This way 3 tasks can be performed in parallel Pipelining A pipeline was introduced in the tracking algorithm The GPU performs the tracking for event n, while event n-1 is transferred to the GPU, while event n-2 is initialized by the CPU It is only necessary to ensure, that the GPU is always fully utilized, as the GPU now is the main processor for computing Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-106

Pipelining visualization The diagram below shows the tracking of 12 slices in a pipelined way Only during the initialization of the first slice the GPU is idling Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-107

GPU Tracker Speedup The following final speedup was achieved: Volker Lindenstruth (www.compeng.de) 15. November 2011 Copyright, Goethe Uni, alle Rechte vorbehalten L02-108