Green Energy Technology, Economics and Policy Editors U.Aswathanarayana, General Editor Mahadevan International Centre for Water Resources Management, Hyderabad, India T. Harikrishnan, Section 3 IAEA, Vienna, Austria K.M.Thayyib Sahini,Section 6 IAEA, Vienna, Austria Ltfi) CRC Press VV^ J Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York Leiden CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business A BALKEMA BOOK
Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Foreword List of Contributors Units, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Definitions and Conversion Constants Section I: Introduction (U.Aswathanarayana) xv xvii xxi xxiii xxv xxvii I Section 2: Renewable energy technologies (U. Aswathanarayana) 5 Chapter 1 Renewables and climate change (U. Aswathanarayana) 7 1.1 Projected growth of renewables 7 Chapter 2 Wind power (U. Aswathanarayana) 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Environmental factors 12 2.3 Costs 13 2.4 Wind power markets 13 2.5 Projected growth of wind power 15 2.6 Offshore wind power 15 2.7 Prognosis 20 Chapter 3 Solar energy (U. Aswathanarayana) 21 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 PV technology 22 3.3 Thin films 23
viii Contents 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Costs Research & Development needed New concept PV devices Concentrated Solar Power Chapter 4 Biomass (U. Aswathanarayana) 29 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction Technology Algal biofuels Biomass wastes Costs Ethanol Landfill Gas Prognosis 29 29 32 34 35 36 36 38 Chapter 5 Hydropower (U. Aswathanarayana) 39 5.1 Introduction 39 5.2 "Storage" Projects 40 5.3 Pumped storage hydroelectricity 42 5.4 "In-river" hydroelectric projects 43 Chapter 6 Geothermal energy (U. Aswathanarayana) 45 6.1 Introduction 45 6.2 Technology, 46 6.3 Resources " 46 6.4 Costs 47 6.5 Research & Development 48 Chapter 7 Tidal power (U. Aswathanarayana) 49 7.1 Introduction 49 7.2 Resource position 50 7.3 Ranee (France) and Severn (UK) tidal barrages 50 7.4 Research & Development and Costs 51 Chapter 8 Deployment of renewable energy technologies (U. Aswathanarayana) 53 8.1 Characteristics and costs of common RETs 53 8.2 Potentials of RETs 53 8.3 Measuring policy effectiveness and efficiency 58 8.4 Overview of support schemes 59 8.5 Public-private partnership 60 8.6 An Integrated Strategy for the deployment of RETs 62 8.7 Renewable energy development in China and India 63 References 63 Section 3: Supply-side energy technologies (T. Harikrishnan, IAEA) 65 Chapter 9 Fossil fuels and CCS (T. Ohsumi) 67 9.1 Introduction 67 9.2 Efficiency improvement in power generation 70 24 24 26 26
Contents ix 9.3 Fuel switching in fossil fuel power plants 9.4 Capture of CO 2 9.5 Compression of CO2 9.6 Transport of CO2 in CCS 9.7 Storage of CO 2 Chapter 10 Nuclear power (T. Harikrishnan) 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Future projections 10.1.2 Nuclear power and green energies 10.2 Nuclear fission 10.2.1 Fission chain reaction 10.2.2 Natural fission reactors 10.2.3 Nuclear reactors 10.3 Sustainable nuclear fuel cycle options 10.3.1 Thorium fuel cycle 10.3.2 Uranium resources and production 10.3.3 Thorium resources 10.3.4 Uranium conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication 10.3.5 Spent fuel management and reprocessing 10.4 Advanced and next generation reactors 10.4.1 Generation IV reactors 10.4.2 Generation V reactors 10.4.3 Fusion reactors 10.4.4 Accelerator Driven System 10.5 Nuclear economics 10.6 Nuclear safety 10.7 Disposal of nuclear wastes Chapter 11 Next generation green technologies (T. Harikrishnan) 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biomass gasification 11.2.1 Biomass 11.2.2 Gasification 11.2.3 Syngas 11.2A Fischer-Tropsch process 11.2.5 Biomass Integrated-gasifier/gas turbine combined cycle 11.2.6 Environmental benefits of gasification 11.3 Marine energy 11.3.1 Marine current power 11.3.2 Ocean thermal energy 11.3.3 Salinity gradient power 11.3.4 Tidal power 11.3.5 Wave power 11.3.6 Damless hydro 71 73 75 76 78 81 81 81 83 84 84 85 86 90 91 92 95 96 91 98 98 99 99 100 100 102 105 109 109 110 111 112 114 115 116 117 117 118 120 123 124 126 130
x Contents 11.4 Enhanced Geothermal Systems 131 11.4.1 Technical considerations 132 11.4.2 Economic considerations 135 11.4.3 Further studies required 136 11.4.4 Induced seismicity 136 Chapter 12 Algal biofuels (Sabil Francis) 137 12.1 Introduction 137 12.2 Comparative advantages 138 12.3 Problems with algal biofuels 139 12.4 Technologies - 140 12.4.1 Cultivation of algae 140 12.4.2 Harvesting of algae 141 12.4.3 Extraction of various energy products from algae 141 References 144 Section 4: Demand-side energy technologies (U. Aswathanarayana) 149 Chapter 13 Industry (U. Aswathanarayana) 151 13.1 Industrial energy use and CO2 emissions profile 151 13.2 Iron and steel 154 13.3 Non-metallic minerals 157 13.4 Chemicals and petrochemicals '. 159 13.5 Pulp and Paper s 162 13.6 Non-ferrous metals 164 13.7 Research & Development, Demonstration and Deployment 165 Chapter 14 Buildings & Appliances (U. Aswathanarayana) 169 14.1 Introduction 169 14.1.1 The building shell, heating and cooling 172 14.1.2 Windows 173 14.1.3 Hot water 174 14.1.4 Cooling systems: air conditioning 174 14.1.5 Appliances 175 14.1.6 Lighting 175 14.1.7 Heat pumps 176 14.1.8 Solar thermal heating 178 14.2 Passive houses and zero-energy buildings 179 14.3 Bioenergy technologies 180 14.4 Research & Development, Demonstration and Deployment 182 Chapter 15 Transport (U. Aswathanarayana) 183 15.1 Overview 183 15.2 Alternative fuels 185 15.2.1 Biofuels for transport 186 15.2.2 Electricity in transport 187 15.2.3 Hydrogen in transport 187
Contents xi 15.3 Light-duty vehicles 188 15.4 Trucking and freight movement 193 15.5 Aviation 195 15.6 Maritime transport 197 15.7 Research & Development breaktroughs required for technologies in transport 199 Chapter 16 Electricity systems (U. Aswathanarayana) 201 16.1 Overview 201 16.2 Transmission Technologies 202 16.3 Distribution v - - ' 203 16.4 Electricity Storage Systems 204 16.5 Demand Response 206 16.6 "Smart" Grid application 207 16.6.1 Electricity Pricing 209 16.6.2 Electricity grid and peak demand response 210 16.6.3 Incentives to shed loads 211 16.6.4 Technologies for demand reduction. 211 16.6.5 "Power Plant in a box" 212 References 212 Section 5: Making green energy competitive (U. Aswathanarayana).215 Chapter 17 Roadmaps and phases of development of low-carbon technologies (U. Aswathanarayana) 217 17.1 Why low-carbon energy technologies? 217 17.2 Emission reductions and Research Development & Demonstration investment 219 17.3 Innovation Systems in Technology Development 220 17.4 Research, development and Demonstration in the energy sector 223 17A.I Renewable Energy Sector 224 17.4.2 Fossil Fuel Power 224 17.4.3; Electricity System 225 17.4.4* Industry - Process Innovations 225 17.4.5 Buildings and Appliances 225 17.4.6 Transport - Vehicles 225 17.4.7 Transport - Fuels 225 17.4.8 Cross-cutting, 226 17.5 Research, development and Demonstration policies 226 Chapter 18 Deployment and role of technology learning (U. Aswathanarayana) 229 18.1 Introduction 229 18.2 Technology Learning Curves 230 18.3 Commercialization of power generation technologies 232 18.4 Deployment costs 233
xii Contents 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 Regional deployment of key power generation technologies Barriers to technology diffusion Strategy for accelerating deployment Investment issues Chapter 19 Energy efficiency and energy taxation (U. Aswathanarayana) 19.1 Matrix of Economic Evaluation Measures 19.2 Total Life-Cycle Cost (TLCC) 19.3 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 19.4 Energy Efficiency of Renewable Energy Systems 19.5 Energy taxation 19.6 Renewable Energy Tax Credits 19.7 Depreciation Chapter 20 Energy economics and markets (U. Aswathanarayana) 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Modeling electricity markets 20.3 Average costs and marginal costs 20.4 Load cycle 20.5 Energy economics 20.6 Levelized costs 20.7 Limit pricing model 20.8 Pollution as a negative externality 20.9 Energy futures and options markets 20.10i Energy and Information technology Chapter 21 Renewable energy policies (U. Aswathanarayana) 21.1 Why renewables? 21.2 Market-based strategies to promote green energies 21.3 Country case histories 21.3.1 The Dutch Green Electricity programme 21.3.2 The USA Green Electricity Market 21.3.3 U.K. Green Electricity Market 21.4 Lessons References 234 235 236 236 239 239 241 242 244 250 251 251 255 255 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 265 266 269 269 272 274 274 275 277 278 278 Section 6: A green new deal (K.M.Thayyib Sahini) 281 Chapter 22 Goals of the green new deal (K.M. Thayyib Sahini, IAEA) 283 22.1 Introduction 283 22.2 Smart electricity grid 283 22.3 Decarbonising electricity production 286 22.4 Decarbonising transport 289 22.5 Decarbonising buildings 290 22.6 Decarbonising industry 291 22.7 Conclusion 292
Chapter 23 Ways of "greening the economy" (Jayaraj Manepalli, Vienna) 23.1 ' 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.9 Contents Introduction 23.1.1 The challenges in the energy sector 23.1.2 The Urgency 23.1.3 Green Energy Greening the economy: the challenge 23.2.1 Carbon Credits: Are these measures enough? Financial stimuli Research and development Infrastructure development Employment generation Social security Education and outreach Conclusion Chapter 24 Poverty, environment and climate change (K.M. 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 References Thayyib Sahini, IAEA) Introduction Climate change challenge and poverty Poverty and environment Eradicating poverty Energy for Development Integrating poverty eradication, environment protection and energy security Conclusion xiii 293 293 293 294 294 295 296 297 299 301 302 304 305 306 309 309 310 311 313 314 315 317 318 Section 7: Overview and integration (U. Aswathanarayana) 323 Author index 333 Subject index 337