INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Transcription

1 INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY FELIX A. FARRET M. GODOY SIMOES IEEE IEEE PRESS WILEY- 'INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

2 CONTENTS CONTRIBUTORS FOREWORD PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS xvii xix xxi xxiii xxv 1 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY Introduction Renewable Sources of Energy Renewable Energy Versus Alternative Energy Planning and Development of Integrated Energy Grid-Supplied Electricity Load Distributed Generation Renewable Energy Economics Calculation of Electricity Generation Costs European Targets for Renewables Demand-Side Management Options Supply-Side Management Options Integration of Renewable Energy Sources Integration of Renewable Energy in the United States Energy Recovery Time Sustainability Modern Electronic Controls of Power Systems 26 References 27 vii

3 viii CONTENTS 2 PRINCIPLES OF THERMODYNAMICS 2.1. Introduction 2.2. State of a Thermodynamic System 2.3. Fundamental Laws and Principles Example in a Nutshell Practical Problems Associated with Carnot Cycle Plant Rankine Cycle for Power Plants Brayton Cycle for Power Plants Energy and Power 2.4 Examples of Energy Balance Simple Residential Energy Balance Refrigerator Energy Balance Energy Balance for a Water Heater Rock Bed Energy Balance Array of Solar Collectors Heat Pump Heat Transfer Analysis 2.5 Planet Earth: A Closed But Not Isolated System References 3 HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Determination of the Useful Power 3.3 Expedient Topographical and Hydrological Measurements Simple Measurement of Elevation Global Positioning Systems for Elevation Measurement Specification of Pipe Losses Expedient Measurements of Stream Water Flow Civil Works 3.4 Generating Unit Regulation Systems Butterfly Valves 3.5 Waterwheels 3.6 Turbines Pelton Turbine Francis Turbine Michel-Banki Turbine

4 CONTENTS IX Kaplan or Hydraulic Propeller Turbine Deriaz Turbines Water Pumps Working as Turbines Specification of Hydro Turbines 81 References 82 4 WIND POWER PLANTS Introduction Appropriate Location Evaluation of Wind Intensity Topography Purpose of the Energy Generated Means of Access Wind Power General Classification of Wind Turbines Rotor Turbines Multiple-Blade Turbines Drag Turbines (Savonius) Lifting Turbines System TARP-WARP Accessories 4.5 Generators and Speed Control Used in Wind Power Energy Analysis of Small Generating Systems 107 References THERMOSOLAR POWER PLANTS Introduction Water Heating by Solar Energy Heat Transfer Calculation of Thermally Isolated Reservoirs Heating Domestic Water Thermosolar Energy Parabolic Trough Parabolic Dish Solar Power Tower Production of Hydrogen Economical Analysis of Thermosolar Energy 126 References 127

5 6 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Solar Energy 6.3 Generation of Electricity by Photovoltaic Effect 6.4 Dependence of a PV Cell Characteristic on Temperature 6.5 Solar Cell Output Characteristics 6.6 Equivalent Models and Parameters for Photovoltaic Panels Dark-Current Electric Parameters of a Photovoltaic Panel Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Series Model of a PV Panel Consisting of n Cells in Parallel 6.7 Photovoltaic Systems Illumination Area Solar Modules and Panels Aluminum Structures Load Controller Battery Bank 6.8 Applications of Photovoltaic Solar Energy Residential and Public Illumination Stroboscopic Signaling Electric Fence Telecommunications Water Supply and Micro-Irrigation Systems Control of Plagues and Conservation of Food and Medicine Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation by Electrolysis Electric Power Supply Security and Alarm Systems 6.9 Economical Analysis of Solar Energy References 7 POWER PLANTS WITH FUEL CELLS Introduction The Fuel Cell Commercial Technologies for Generation of Electricity Practical Issues Related to Fuel Cell Stacking Low- and High-Temperature Fuel Cells Commercial and Manufacturing Issues 170

6 CONTENTS XI 7.5 Constructional Features of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Constructional Features of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Water, Air, and Heat Management Load Curve Peak Shaving with Fuel Cells Maximal Load Curve Flatness at Constant Output Power Amount of Thermal Energy Necessary Reformers, Electrolyzer Systems, and Related Precautions Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Equivalent Circuit Practical Determination of the Equivalent Model Parameters Example of Determination of FC Parameters Aspects of Hydrogen as Fuel Future Perspectives 195 References BIOMASS-POWERED MICROPLANTS Introduction Fuel from Biomass Biogas Biomass for Biogas Biological Formation of Biogas Factors Affecting Biodigestion Characteristics of Biodigesters Construction of Biodigester Sizing a Biodigester Generation of Electricity Using Biogas 211 References MICROTURBINES Introduction Princples of Operation Microturbine Fuel Control of Microturbines Mechanical-Side Structure Electrical-Side Structure Control-Side Structure 224

7 Xii CONTENTS 9.5 Efficiency and Power of Microturbines Site Assessment for Installation of Microturbines 230 References INDUCTION GENERATORS Introduction Principles of Operation Representation of Steady-State Operation Power and Losses Generated Self-Excited Induction Generator Magnetizing Curves and Self-Excitation Mathematical Description of the Self-Excitation Process Interconnected and Stand-Alone Operation Speed and Voltage Control Frequency, Speed, and Voltage Controls Load Control Versus Source Control for Induction Generators The Danish Concept Variable-Speed Grid Connection Control by the Load Versus Control by the Source Economical Aspects 258 References STORAGE SYSTEMS Introduction Energy Storage Parameters Lead-Acid Batteries Constructional Features Battery Charge-Discharge Cycles Operating Limits and Parameters Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for DG Applications Ultracapacitors Double-Layer Ultracapacitors High-Energy Ultracapacitors Applications of Ultracapacitors 279

8 CONTENTS Xlii 11.5 Flywheels Advanced Performance of Fly wheels Applications of Flywheels Design Strategies Superconducting Magnetic Storage System SMES System Capabilities Developments in SMES Systems Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage Storage Capabilities of Pumped Systems Compressed Air Energy Storage Storage Heat Energy Storage as an Economic Resource 295 References INTEGRATION OF ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY Introduction Principles of Power Injection Converting Technologies Power Converters for Power Injection into the Grid Power Flow Instantaneous Active and Reactive Power Control Approach Integration of Multiple Renewable Energy Sources DC-Link Integration AC-Link Integration HFAC-Link Integration Islanding and Interconnection Control DG Control and Power Injection 325 References DISTRIBUTED GENERATION Introduction The Purpose of Distributed Generation Sizing and Siting of Distributed Generation Demand-Side Management Optimal Location of Distributed Energy Sources 340

9 XIV CONTENTS DG Influence on Power and Energy Losses Estimation of DG Influence on Power Losses of Subtransmission Systems Equivalent of Subtransmission Systems Using Experimental Design 13.6 Algorithm of Multicriterial Analysis References 14 INTERCONNECTION OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES WITH THE GRID Benjamin Kroposki, Thomas Basso, Richard DeBlasio, and N. Richard Friedman 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Interconnection Technologies Synchronous Interconnection Induction Interconnection Inverter Interconnection 14.3 Standards and Codes for Interconnection IEEE National Electrical Code UL Standards 14.4 Interconnection Considerations Voltage Regulation Integration with Area EPS Grounding Synchronization Isolation Response to Voltage Disturbance Response to Frequency Disturbance Disconnection for Faults Loss of Synchronism Feeder Reclosing Coordination DC Injection Voltage Flicker Harmonics Unintentional Islanding Protection 14.5 Interconnection Examples for Alternative Energy Sources Synchronous Generator for Peak Demand Reduction

10 CONTENTS XV J Small Grid-Connected Photovoltaic System 375 References 378 H5 MICROPOWER SYSTEM MODELING WITH HOMER 379 Tom Lambert, Paul Gilman, and Peter Lilienthal 15.1 Introduction Simulation Optimization Sensitivity Analysis Dealing with Uncertainty Sensitivity Analyses on Hourly Data Sets 391, 15.5 Physical Modeling Loads Resources Components System Dispatch Economic Modeling 414 References 416 Glossary 416 APPENDIX A: DIESEL POWER PLANTS 419 A.I Introduction 419 A.2 Diesel Engine 420 A.3 Principal Components of a Diesel Engine 421 A.3.1 Fixed Parts 421 A.3.2 Moving Parts 421 A.3.3 Auxiliary Systems 422 A.4 Terminology of Diesel Engines 422 A.4.1 Diesel Cycle 422 A.4.2 Combustion Process 424 A.5 Diesel Engine Cycle 425 A.5.1 Relative Diesel Engine Cycle Losses 425 A.5.2 Classification of Diesel Engines 426 A.6 Types of Fuel Injection Pumps 427 A.7 Electrical Conditions of Generators Driven by Diesel Engines 427 References 429

11 XVI CONTENTS APPENDIX B: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 431 B.I Introduction 431 B.2 Geothermal as a Source of Energy 432 B.2.1 Geothermal Economics 434 B.2.2 Geothermal Electricity 435 B.2.3 Geothermal/Ground Source Heat Pumps 436 References 437 APPENDIX C: THE STIRLING ENGINE 438 C.I Introduction 438 C.2 Stirling Cycle 439 C.3 Displacer Stirling Engine 442 C.4 Two-Piston Stirling Engine 444 References 446 INDEX 447