Functional Valuation of Ecosystem Services on Bonaire

Transcription

1 Funtionl Vlution of Eosystm Srvis on Bonir - An ologil nlysis of osystm funtions provi y orl rfs - Ingri J.M. vn Bk MS Aquultur n Fishris Spilistion Mrin Rsours n Eology Wgningn Univrsity Th Nthrlns MS- rport Aquti Eology n Wtr Qulity Mngmnt no. 009/2011 Novmr 2011

2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In th first pl I lik to thnk my suprvisor Erik Mstrs from IMARES for this grt opportunity to o my thsis rsrh on mrin ology topi in th Duth Crin n for ll th support n lrning xprins uring th ight months w work togthr. Espilly th sintifi ommnts on my rsrh sign, th sttistil tsts n os writtn in R n th vlopmnt of mps woul not hv n possil without his hlp. W lso m grt tm oing fil work, Erik s orl iologist n rtiv spirit n m s fish xprt n orgnistionl riving for. Dt olltion for this rsrh ws m possil thnks to Rmón Lón from STINAPA n Ml Nv from STCB, who kinly hlp out with rrnging ots n ot rivrs for our survy. Spil thnks gos to Mrylou Hilrn, who ws working with us for wk n lwys hrfully ropping us in th wtr n piking us up vry 500m tim ftr tim, n Din Domss who hlp out on rough lotions. I m lso grtful to Vinnt Bor from Univrsity Groningn who prform som of th sttistil tsts n my suprvisor Rui Roijkrs from Wgningn Univrsity who provi mny itoril ommnts on rft vrsions of this thsis rport. Lst ut not lst I lik to thnk Esthr Wolfs th Duth ministry of EL&I unr grnt numr sk Esthr for funing knowlgmnts, n hr trust in m n my ontriution to this projt. 2

3 ABSTRACT My thsis rsrh s 1970 with thory to quntify n montiz ntur (Huting, 1970). Rfrns to th onpt of osystm srvis t k to th mi 1960s n rly 1970s ( Groot t l., 2002) A Ph rsrh into th vlu of ntur y D Groot (1992) mphsiz th n to iz osystm srvis y intgrting ologil informtion. In 2005 th Millnium Eosystm Assssmnt (MEA) rport us th osystm srvis pproh to light th importn n rivrs of hngs of osystm srvi livry (MEA, 2005). Th Eonomis of Eosystm srvis n Bioivrsity (TEEB) pltform uilt on th frmwork of MEA, ut spifi osystms in unrlying funtions, prosss nomi nfits of ioivrsity n osts of ioivrsity losss (TEEB, 2010). Vlution of osystm srvis n on t thr lvls, montry, quntittiv n qulittiv. Qulittiv sris nfits in non- numril sl, quntittiv msurs nfits n hngs s on numril t n montry uils on quntittiv vlu n tths montry vlu (Whit t l., 2011). This rsrh is smi- quntittiv nlysis of th funtionl vlu of orl rf hitts on Bonir to support osystm srvis. It is prt of n onomi vlution stuy of mrin n trrstril osystm srvis on Bonir. Th onomi vlution stuy stimt montry vlu of slt osystm srvis. My rsrh msur th funtionl vlu, fin s th ologil importn of hitt, on n orinl sl with four lvls (0-3). Th TEEB thortil frmwork ws ppli y stuying th unrlying ologil funtions, prosss n struturs of orl rfs tht trmin th pity to livr orl rf osystm srvis through litrtur rviw. Th funtionl group pproh ws us s msur of th importn of hitts s on th lvl of rprsnttion of fish n orl funtionl groups. Th mthoology to nlyz th funtionl vlu ws inspir y stuy of Hrorn (2006) tht stlish th funtionl vlu of Crin orl rf, sgrss n mngrov hitts to osystm prosss. My rsrh ppli this mtho using Bonir s s stuy n pt th mtho to trmin th funtionl vlu of hitts to osystm srvis inst of osystm prosss. This wy th stuy of Hrorn hs n tkn stp furthr y mking th link twn th onomi nlysis foussing on osystm srvis n th ologil nlysis foussing on osystm funtioning. Th othr pttions m wr th sptil sl, th hitt typs n th t olltion mtho. Hrorn trmin th vlu y oing mt- nlysis of mpiril litrtur on prosss in tn orl rf, sgrss n mngrov hitt typs. For my rsrh primry t of fish n nthi funtionl groups wr ollt t ovr hunr lotions long th ntir lwr ost of Bonir to vlu just two orl rf hitt typs. Outom of this rsrh r mtris prsnting rltionships twn soio- onomi srvis n ologil funtions, prosss n fish n nthi spis rprsnting funtionl rol. Anothr outom r mps prsnting th funtionl vlu of h lotion to support twlv osystm srvis s on th primry t ollt. Ths mps wr nlyz tking into ount rsour us on Bonir n show whih r r of importn for h srvi. This rsrh is innovtiv in its ttmpt to link th onomi vlu of osystm srvis with n ologil vlu of hitts to support ths osystm srvis. In ition th survy of nthi ovr n fish ioivrsity n unn hs not n on t suh lrg sl oring to our knowlg sin th mpping of Bonir in 1985 (Vn Duyl, 1985). 3

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Introution Bkgroun Bonir IMARES Prolm finition Thsis rsrh Ojtivs Rsrh qustions Mtho ovrviw n sop Strutur of rport Rsrh mthoology Thortil frmwork Eonomi vlution of osystm srvis Th onomis of osystms n ioivrsity Funtionl vlution of hitts to osystm prosss Conptul mol Funtionl group pproh Stp 1, 2 n 6: Eonomil nlysis Stp 3, 4 n 5: Eologil nlysis Stp 6 n 7: Vlu mp n Thrt nlysis Hitts Dt olltion Litrtur rviw Primry t olltion: Snorkl survy Primry t olltion: Stkholr workshop sssion Sonry t olltion Dt ntry n qulity ontrol Dt nlysis Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Rsults rltionship nlysis Eosystm funtion, srvi or pross? Linking osystm funtions n osystm srvis Intifition of osystm srvis Intifition of osystm funtions Rltionship twn osystm funtions n osystm srvis Linking funtionl groups n osystm funtions Intifition of ologil prosss n iophysil struturs Intifition of funtionl groups Rltionship twn funtionl groups n osystm funtions Rsults snorkl survy Mrin n ostl rsour us t survy lotions Funtionl vlu nlysis of fish funtionl groups Fish funtionl groups n funtionl rols

5 4.2.2 Orinl sling n mpping of fish funtionl vlus in survy lotions Diffrns in fish funtionl vlus twn rsour us groups Funtionl vlu nlysis of orl n othr nthi funtionl groups Corl n othr nthi funtionl groups n funtionl rols Orinl sling n mpping of nthi funtionl vlus in survy lotions Rsults funtionl vlu nlysis Funtionl vlu of hitts n lotions to livr osystm srvis Assigning funtionl vlus to hitts n lotions Funtionl vlu mps of hitts to support osystm srvis Disussion n rommntions Contxt of this rsrh n othr stuis Mthoologil flws, ssumptions n gps Projt mngmnt implitions Nxt stps n suggstions for furthr rsrh Conlusions Rfrns Appnis

6 1 INTRODUCTION My thsis rsrh for th Institut for Mrin Rsours n Eosystm Stuis (IMARES) ws prt of onomi vlution of osystm srvis on Bonir. For this projt IMARES is proviing sintifi informtion n unrstning of th ologil funtioning of thos osystms. Som kgroun informtion on Bonir, th projt n IMARES is prsnt in hptr 1.1. In my rsrh I stui th funtionl vlu of orl rf osystms, n th pity of orl rfs to provi osystm srvis. Th rtionl for my stuy ologiz of osystm srvis is xplin in hptr 1.2, fol y th ojtivs n rsrh qustions of my rsrh in hptr 1.3. Th lst hptr outlins th strutur of this rport. 1.1 Bkgroun Bonir Bonir is n isln in th Crin S lot 80km north of Vnzul [1] s shown in figur 1. It is prt of th Kingom of th Nthrlns. Sin th issolution of th Duth Antills on 10 Otor 2010 Bonir m spil muniiplity of Crin Nthrlns [2]. Figur 1. Position of Bonir in th Crin S (Sour: Th isln ovrs n r of 288 km 2 (RLG, 2009), 38 km long n twn 5 n 11 km wi [1] plus n itionl 6 km 2 for th smll uninhit isln of Klin Bonir (Wolfs, 2011). Thr r oth trrstril n mrin prott rs. Th Bonir Ntionl Mrin Prk nompsss th mrin prott r of out 27 km 2 long th ntir ost of Bonir from th wtr mrk to 60 mtrs pth, n inlus orl rf, sgrss n mngrovs [3]. Th rfs roun Bonir n Klin Bonir r fringing rfs, strting t th shorlin n xtning to mximum of 300 mtrs offshor. Thy provi hitt for out 65 spis of stony orl n mor thn 450 spis of rf fish (IUCN, 2011). Th sgrss n mngrov hitts r minly foun in L By, whih is not only lol mrin prott r, ut lso glolly rogniz wtln n prott RAMSAR r [4]. Th topogrphy of th isln is ivrs, with mountins, ry forst n roky shors in th north- wst n flt lnsp with slt lks n orl rul or sny shors in th south- wst. Th winwr north- 6

7 strn ost is hrtriz y limston pltus, roky shors n iffiult ss to s u to wvs, whil th lwr ost hs gnrlly lm wtr n sy ss to s. Bonir hs out inhitnts, th mjority of thm living in Krlnijk [1] n long th lwr wstrn ost. Tourism is th most importnt sour of mploymnt, minly in iv tourism s Bonir [1], in ition to ruis tourism n surf tourism in L By. Othr importnt inustris r th oil storg trminl in th north- wst n th slt proution inustry in th south- wst [1] is soio- onomi vlution of osystm goos n srvis n ioivrsity of Bonir. Th projt is n inititiv of n oorint y Esthr Wolfs, n inpnnt onsultnt living on Bonir. Th ojtiv is to provi informtion for poliy mkrs to mk ttr- inform isions n rgultory msurs for ntur prottion (Wolfs, 2011). Th rtionl for th projt is tht smll isln onomis in th Duth Antills pn hvily on thir mrin n trrstril osystm srvis for inustris suh s tourism, fishris n s trnsporttion (Wolfs, 2011). Eosystm srvis r th nfits popl otin from osystms (MEA, 2005). On Bonir ths srvis r thrtn y ostl vlopmnt, inrs runoff u to grzing y frl livstok, lk of suffiint wst wtr trtmnt, inrs of visitors, ffts of limt hng n othr nvironmntl prssurs (Wolfs, 2011). Th im of th soio- onomi vlution stuy is to gt insight in th onomi vlu of irt n inirt osystm srvis n to ttr unrstn th soio- onomi impts of hngs within osystms. Within th sop of th projt it is knowlg tht th onition of osystms n ioivrsity n its unrlying ologil prosss inluing rivrs of osystm hng r importnt to unrstn in orr to trmin th onomi vlu of osystm srvis. Th ky osystms on Bonir slt for th stuy r orl rfs, mngrov forst, sgrss s, ostl wtrs, hs, ostl vgttion, n ry forst (Wolfs, 2011) IMARES IMARES is n inpnnt n ojtiv rsrh institut tht is prt of Wgningn UR (Univrsity & Rsrh ntr) n provis knowlg nssry for n intgrt prottion, xploittion n sptil us of th s n ostl zons. Erik Mstrs, tropil mrin ologist n rsrhr t th prtmnt Eosystms of IMARES lotions Txl n Dn Hlr, is within th institut rsponsil for h rol of IMARES in th projt is to provi sintifi informtion n unrstning of th funtioning of slt osystms in Bonir, n to ssss th impts of hngs in osystm onitions on th provisioning of srvis. 1.2 Prolm finition informtion ws lry mphsis y D Groot (1992) in his rsrh into th funtions n vlus of ntur. Ds ltr Th Eonomi of Eosystms n Bioivrsity (TEEB) pltform, glol 2- yr stuy of hunrs of xprts, rports tht knowlg out th rol of osystm prosss n ioivrsity in th provision of srvis for humn wlfr is still lking, n tht rsrh fforts r n to gt ttr initors to msur ioivrsity n th provision of srvis s sis for onomi vlution (D Groot t l., 2010). Aoring to Krmn (2005) ologil unrstning of most osystm srvis is still limit. Eology n onomy n to ttr link in orr to mk inform isions in th onsrvtion n mngmnt of osystms. Eonomi vlution of osystm srvis intifis supply of goos n srvis n stimts montry vlus, ut os not msur how osystm funtioning n ioivrsity trmin n influn th quntity n qulity 7

8 of goos n srvis provi (Krmn, 2005). Lk of knowlg out th rol of osystm prosss n ioivrsity on humn wlfr n th rol of humn tions on nvironmntl hng r intifi s rsons for lrg sl n ontinuous osystm grtion n lrting loss of osystm srvis n ioivrsity (D Groot t l., 2010). Ths omplx ynmis might th rson tht ologil prosss n osystm funtioning hv not n suffiintly intgrt in onomi vlution stuis. Th omplx ologil intrtions from nvironmntl onitions to iologil prosss to ologil funtion livry (Fri t l., 2008) might nothr rson for th Th soio- onomi vlution stuy of Bonir provis th opportunity n frmwork to rss this rsrh gp on lol sl, using th osystm srvis of orl rfs in Bonir s s stuy. Th im of th ologil rsrh within th frmwork of th soio- onomi vlution stuy is (1) to intify ky ologil prosss n orrsponing pross initors tht trmin th onition of th osystms n (2) to intify inirt n irt rivrs of osystm hng n orrsponing initors of hng in th sttus of th osystms (Wolfs, 2011). Th fous of my rsrh is on mrin osystms in gnrl, n on orl rfs in prtiulr. Two intronnt osystms, sgrss s n mngrov forsts, r inlu in this rsrh with rspt to thos prosss tht r link to th srvis provi y orl rfs. For xmpl, mngrovs r nursris for juvnil spis n support fish n invrtrt iomss n ivrsity on orl rfs, inrsing rsours vill for xtrtiv us in fishris n non- xtrtiv us in iving tourism. Th qulity of osystms is th sis for ll osystm funtions n ontinuous provision of srvis (Boum n vn r Plog, 1975). Wll- funtioning osystms r mor likly to provi sustinl livry of osystm srvis. Sustinl in this ontxt mns tht th stt of th osystm mts th ns of th urrnt humn popultion without ompromising th ility to mt th ns of futur gnrtions (MEA, 2005) to livr osystm srvis. Wll- funtioning osystms r osystms tht hv vlop into or r in th pross of vlopmnt towrs - sty stt osystm tht is stl t th rltiv short- trm of 50 to 200 yrs (Boum n vn r Plog, 1975). A stl stt osystm is hrtriz y th rsilin of th osystm (Boum n vn r Plog, 1975). Rsilin is th pity of n osystm to op with isturns without shifting into qulittivly iffrnt stt tht is ontroll y iffrnt st of prosss (D Groot t l., 2010; Mynr t l., 2010). Th stl stt of hlthy orl rf is orl- omint stt (Shppr t l., 2009). A qulittivly iffrnt stt is n lg- or vn rul- omint stt (Mynr t l., 2010). Ths ltrntiv stts o not support th ioivrsity n struturl omplxity tht orl rfs offr, n suh hngs in osystms will invitly l to hngs in osystm srvi livry. In th s stuy of Bonir, most irt n inirt us of osystm srvis of orl rfs pns on th urrnt orl- omint stt. For xmpl, iving tourism rlis on th unn n ivrsity of orls n rf fish, ut lso rgulting srvis suh s ostl prottion rquir th orl rf strutur tht issipts wv nrgy n provis nturl rkwtrs. Whil osystm srvis r pnnt on wll- funtioning n stl osystms, t th sm tim us of osystm srvis n provi nothr srvi. Popl n funtion within th stl stt onitions of n osystm, howvr frquntly osystms r unl to op with n to nutrliz th nthropogni impts (Boum n vn r Plog, 1975). Corl rf rsilin is rlt to funtionl n struturl omponnts of th rf osystm. Th sttus of ths omponnts n hrtris y initors tht n msur. Evlution of ths initors n us to inform stkholrs on th sttus of th osystm n its funtions, th impts of nturl n nthropogni prssurs on th futur livry of osystm srvis n inform mngmnt on msurs to mitigt impts. 8

9 1.3 Thsis rsrh Ojtivs Th ovrll im of this rsrh ws to nlyz for Bonir how osystm srvis provi y orl rfs n intronnt sgrss s n mngrov forsts r trmin y iffrnt ologil prosss n struturs tht ply ky rol in osystm rsilin n th sustinl livry of nomi vlu of osystm srvis is to nlyz how ths mrin hitts rprsnt osystm srvis s wll s ky ologil prosss. Th rsrh ojtivs r twofol: Th first ojtiv is to vlop mtho to nlyz th funtionl vlu of orl rf hitts in Bonir to ky ologil prosss n struturs, y ssigning vlus to hitts whr ky ologil prosss n struturs r tking pl s on th prsn of funtionl groups of rf fish n orls n thir funtionl rol in ths ologil prosss n struturs. Th son ojtiv is to nlyz whih orl rf hitts n lotions in Bonir ontriut most to th osystm srvis provi for in Bonir, in orr to know whih mrin hitts n to trgt in onsrvtion mngmnt n how to inorport th sustinl livry of osystm srvi Rsrh qustions Wht is th funtionl vlu of orl rfs in Bonir to osystm srvis msur s th rprsnttion of ruil funtionl groups tht support ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs tht provi osystm srvis (n ultimtly support orl rf rsilin)? In orr to nswr this rsrh qustion, th foling qustions n to nswr: 1. Whih osystm srvis r provi y orl rfs on Bonir? 2. Wht r ky ologil prosss n struturs tht trmin osystm funtions (n th pity to livr ths osystm srvis)? 3. Wht r ruil funtionl groups n thir funtionl rols to support ths ky prosss n struturs? 4. Wht is th lvl of rprsnttion of ths funtionl groups in orl rf hitts n lotions on Bonir? Mtho ovrviw n sop This rsrh onsist of two prts: litrtur rviw on orl rf osystm srvis n unrlying ologil prosss n struturs n n nlytil stuy of primry t ollt through snorkl survy. Not ll osystms whih r wr xmin, ut just th orl rf osystm. Furthrmor it i not intn to sri th omplt n omplx funtioning of orl rf osystm s whol, ut only thos lmnts tht r link to thos funtionl groups of orl n fish tht n inlu in visul nsus thniqu. For xmpl th miroil loop tht is onsir ssntil in th nutrint yl on orl rfs is not inlu s ths singl- ll orgnisms r not visil whil oing snorkl survy. Rsrh into th impt of thrts to osystm funtioning n osystm srvi livry ws not inlu ithr. 1.4 Strutur of rport Aftr this introution th mthoology of th rsrh is xplin in hptr 2, inluing th thortil frmwork with xisting thoris n onpts tht rsult in th onptul mol for this 9

10 rsrh. It lso lorts how h stp of th onptul mol is us to nswr th rsrh qustions. In hptrs 3, 4 n 5 th outoms of th two omponnts of this rsrh, th litrtur stuy n th nlytil stuy, r prsnt. Chptr 3 nswrs th first thr rsrh qustions s on litrtur rviw y proviing n ovrviw of osystm funtions n linking thm to (1) osystm srvis tht n livr y thos funtions in hptr 3.2 n (2) funtionl groups tht support ths funtions n th unrlying prosss n struturs in hptr 3.3. In hptr 4 th rsults of primry t nlysis r prsnt: th sltion n rprsnttion of funtionl groups in th orl rf hitts. This nswrs th fourth rsrh qustion for fish funtionl groups in hptr 4.2 n for orls in hptr 4.3. Th ovrrhing rsrh qustion of th funtionl vlu of orl rfs on Bonir is nswr in hptr 5, s on th rsults from hptr 3 n 4. In th isussion in hptr 6 th vits of gps, ssumptions n mthoologil limittions r Finlly, in hptr 7 th onlusions n summry of th rsults r prsnt. 10

11 2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Th sign of this rsrh is summriz in onptul mol whih outlins th pproh of th ologil nlysis n how it fits in th onomil nlysis. Th mol uils on thortil frmwork of xisting thoris n onpts whih is prsnt in hptr 2.1, fol y th onptul mol itslf in hptr 2.2. Chptr 2.3 lorts on th mthos us to ollt, pross n nlyz t. 2.1 Thortil frmwork This rsrh is s on thr xisting onpts: onomi vlution of osystm srvis, Th Eonomis of Eosystms n Bioivrsity frmwork (TEEB) n funtionl vlution of hitts. Th first onpt inits how osystm srvis n intgrt in ision mking through onomi vlution. Th son onpt xplins how onomi vlution n improv through intgrtion of ologil prosss n iophysil struturs to trmin osystm funtions n intgrtion of rivrs of hng ffting osystm funtions. Th thir onpt is mtho to ssss th funtionl vlu s initor of th importn of hitts to ologil prosss. Th lst onpt ws us in this rsrh for th funtionl vlution of orl rf hitts on Bonir, to ssss whih r importnt hitts n lotions for osystm funtions tht provi th pity to livr osystm srvis Eonomi vlution of osystm srvis Eonomi vlution of osystm srvis n us for svrl purposs. Th min im of vluing nturl pitl n osystm srvis is to mk ttr inform isions (Dily t l., 2009) y putting montry vlu on th nfits tht osystms livr for humn wll- ing. Th Millnnium Eosystm Assssmnt (MEA, 2005) fins n osystm s ynmi omplx of plnt, niml, n miroorgnism ommunitis n thir non- living nvironmnt intrting s funtionl unit. Eosystm srvis r fin s th nfits popl otin from osystms (MEA, 2005). MEA (2005) lssifis thm in provisioning, rgulting, ulturl n supporting srvis. Provisioning srvis r th prouts provi y osystms (MEA, 2005) suh s fish for foo n gnti rsours for th phrmutil inustry. Rgulting srvis r th nfits popl otin from th rgultion of osystm prosss (MEA, 2005), suh s limt rgultion n wtr purifition. Culturl srvis r th non- mtril intngil nfits popl otin from osystms (MEA, 2005) suh s spiritul nrihmnt, ognitiv vlopmnt, sthti xprin n rrtion. Supporting srvis r thos tht r nssry for th proution of osystm srvis (MEA, 2005) suh s primry proution. For onomi vlu stimtion osystm srvis r lssifi in irt us, inirt us n non- us vlu. Dirt us rfrs to us of srvis tht r ithr xtrtiv, suh s fishris, or non- xtrtiv, suh s iv tourism. Inirt us rfrs to us of srvis outsi th osystm itslf, for xmpl ron squstrtion from mngrov forsts for glol nfiiris. Non- us rfrs to osystm srvis inpnnt of ny prsnt or futur us, suh s th knowlg tht rr spis xist or th insurn tht futur gnrtions n us th srvi (Vn Bukring t l., 2007). Dirt us vlus of provisioning srvis r sy to stimt (Vn Bukring t l., 2007), us srvis oftn hv mrkt vlu. Inirt us vlus r mor iffiult to stimt us of th omplxity to stimt th lvl of us in rltion to th osystm (Vn Bukring t l., 2007), ut thr r lso vlution mthos to stimt inirt us vlu of rgulting srvis n vn non- us vlus suh s most ulturl srvis. Supporting srvis r gnrlly not vlu s this woul rsult in oul ounts, us th srvi thy support is lry inlu in th vlution. Th ontriution of onomi vlution in osystm mngmnt is tht it provis informtion on th vlu of ntur in omprhnsiv wy, y inluing not just irt us nfits with mrkt vlu. Th totl onomi vlu of ll nfits rprsnts th osts for soity if osystm srvis r lost u to hngs in osystms. 11

12 Figur 2. Rol of onomi vlution in osystm mngmnt (pt from Dily t l., 2009). Furthrmor th onomi vlu n us in ost nfit nlyss to ompr th nfits with th osts of protting osystms. Th frmwork prsnt in figur 2 shows tht vlution of osystm srvis is not n n in itslf, ut wy of orgnizing informtion n stp in th lrgr n ynmi pross of ision- mking (Dily t l., 2000). Eosystm ynmis inluing th impt of thrts n th fft on provision of srvis r n importnt stp in this pross s wll Th onomis of osystms n ioivrsity TEEB, Th Eonomi of Eosystms n Bioivrsity pltform, is glol 2- yr stuy, in whih hunrs of xprts from roun th worl r involv. Thy hv nlyz onomi nfits of iologil ivrsity n osts of ioivrsity losss n hv rport thir finings t th Convntion for Biologil Divrsity in Otor 2010 (TEEB, 2010). Thy rport tht knowlg out th rol of osystm prosss n ioivrsity in th provision of srvis for humn wlfr is still lking, n tht rsrh fforts r n to gt ttr initors to msur ioivrsity n th provision of srvis s sis for onomi vlution (D Groot t l., 2010). TEEB uils on th frmwork of th MEA, ut spifis osystms in unrlying osystm funtions, ologil struturs n prosss, provi (D Groot t l., 2010). This is shown in th uppr- lft hn ox in figur 3. n prosss tht unrpin th pity of n osystm (TEEB, 2010). This is iffrnt from osystm srvis, us funtions rprsnt th pity to provi osystm srvis, not th tul us of srvis. For xmpl th iomss of fish is th funtion, whil th srvis provi r fish th n fish ioivrsity to njoy for ivrs s ulturl srvi. Furthrmor osystm funtions mk th link twn ology n onomy mor istint, s funtions r trmin y ologil prosss n iophysil struturs, whil srvis r trmin y th irt n inirt us for onomi, soil n ologil wlfr. Eosystm prosss r fin s ny hng or rtion whih ours within osystms, ithr physil, hmil or iologil (TEEB, 2010) whih inlu omposition, proution n nutrint yling. Eosystm strutur is fin s th iophysil rhittur of n osystm, for whih th omposition of spis mking up th rhittur my vry (TEEB, 2010). Finlly, rivrs of hng r ffting osystm srvis through osystm hngs. Drivrs r fin s ny nturl or humn- inu ftor tht irtly or inirtly uss hng in n osystm (TEEB, 2010). Inirt rivrs suh s mogrphi shifts, thnology innovtion n onomi vlopmnt fft th wy popl 12

13 irtly us n mng osystms n thir srvis. Dirt rivrs r ivi in ngtiv, nutrl n positiv rivrs. Ngtiv rivrs inlu hitt strution n ovr- xploittion. Nutrl rivrs n hngs in us. Positiv rivrs nhn nturl pitl n inlu osystm onsrvtion n sustinl mngmnt (D Groot t l., 2010). Figur 3. TEEB onptul frmwork (D Groot t l., 2010). Eosystm funtion tgoris istinguish y TEEB r th proution funtion, rgultion funtion, hitt funtion n informtion funtion. Thy r link to provisioning, rgulting, hitt n ulturl srvis. TEEB omitt th MEA tgory of supporting srvis s ths r sn s sust of ologil prosss in th TEEB frmwork (D Groot t l., 2010). This is in lin with th prinipl to voi oul ounts in onomi vlution. TEEB hitt srvi to light th importn of osystms to provi hitt for migrtory spis n gn pool prottion (D Groot t l., 2010). Aoring to th TEEB lssifition 22 srvis r istinguish. For omplt ovrviw of ths srvis, inluing omprison of similritis n iffrns twn TEEB n MEA lssifition is rfrr to ppnix A Funtionl vlution of hitts to osystm prosss Th thir onpt on whih this rsrh proposl is s is mtho sign y Hrorn t l. (2006) to ssign funtionl vlus to osystm prosss in Crin orl rf, sgrss n mngrov hitts. Th mtho is s on n mpiril litrtur rviw of osystm prosss ross th Crin. Hrorn t l. (2006) xmin th importn of orl rf, sgrss n mngrov hitts in h of ths prosss, whih is fin s th funtionl vlu. Th funtionl vlu is xprss on n orinl sl in smi- quntittiv tgoris: non,, or. Ctgoriztion is s muh s possil s on quntittiv mpiril t, n othrwis s on hitt mps r vill, funtionl vlus n ssign to th hitt mp to rt hotspot mps with funtionl vlu or to rt pross mps with lyr pr pross to rss prtiulr ologil n mngmnt qustions (Hrorn t l., 2006). 13

14 Hrorn t l. (2006) istinguish tn hitt typs n lvn osystm prosss. Hitt typology is s on gomorphologil strutur n ioti n ioti nthi omposition (Mumy n Hrorn, 1999). Th slt sl of hitts is lrg nough to isrimint hitt typs y - rsolution optil rmot snsing. Gomorphologil zons typilly foun on Crin orl rfs r lgoons, pth rf, k rf, rf rst, spur n groov, for rf n srpmnt. Bnthi ommunitis typilly foun on Crin orl rfs r ivi in 4 min groups: orl omint, lgl omint, r sustrtum omint n sgrss omint. Tl 1. Funtionl vlus of Crin orl rf, sgrss n mngrov hitts to min osystm prosss (pt from Hrorn t l., 2006). Hitt typs Funtionl vlu: Non Low Mium High Eosystm Pross Unit of msurmnt 1. Wv nrgy issiption % of nrgy Mngrov Lgoon - sgrss Pth rf - orl Bk rf - orl Rf rst - orl Aropor Forrf - lg+gorgonins Shl forrf - orl Montstr Forrf - sn Dp forrf - orl Montstr Esrpmnt - orl 2. Nitrogn fixtion nmol N 2 g fw -1 h Gross primry proution g O 2 m Dnsity of hrivors fish 100 m -2 - Stoplight Prrotfish Sprisom viri - Surgonfish Anthuri spp. - Thrspot Dmslfish Stgsts plnifrons - S urhin Dim (<1983) - S urhin Dim (>1983) 5. Dnsity of plnktivors fish 100 m Dnsity of invrtivors fish 100 m -2 - Whit Grunt Hmulon flvolintum 7. Dnsity of pisivors fish 100 m -2 - Nssu Groupr Epinphlus stritus - Spiny Lostr Pnulirus rgus iniviuls h -1 - Qun onh Stromus gigs iniviuls h Gross lifition kg CCO3 m-2 yr-1 9. Community iorosion kg CCO3 m-2 yr Corl rruitmnt juvnils m Corl ivrsity Shnnon ivrsity inx Tl 1 shows th tn intifi hitt typs s on thir strutur n min nthi omposition (Mumy n Hrorn, 1999). Tl 1 lso shows th lvn osystm prosss n thir unit of 14

15 msurmnt n stnriztion of quntittiv mpiril t. Th prosss r slt s on th frmwork of mjor prosss sri y Hthr (1997): orl rf rtion, iologil proution, orgni omposition, iogohmil yling n mintnn of ioivrsity. 2.2 Conptul mol th ynmi ision mking pross s shown in figur 2 wr nlyz oring to th prinipls of TEEB s shown in figur 3, y xmining th unrlying ologil prosss n iophysil struturs tht trmin osystm funtions. Th onptul mol of this rsrh is prsnt in figur 4 n shows how th ologil n onomil nlyss wr link through th funtionl vlu s introu in hptr Arrows onnt th iffrnt stps in th rsrh n rfr to rltionship tht ws xmin. Dsh rrows rfr to rltionships with omponnts of th projt ll outsi of th sop of this rsrh, ut r nvrthlss inlu in th onptul mol to show th ovrll pitur of th projt. Th ologil nlysis xmin th ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs s on funtionl groups of rf fish n orls n thir funtionl rols in ths ologil prosss n struturs. Th onomil nlysis trmin th min osystm srvis for nfiiris in Bonir n stimt th onomi vlu of h osystm srvi. Th onomi vlu n llot to spifi hitts s on th funtionl vlu of h hitt. Eh stp in th onptul mol is xplin in mor til. Figur 4. Conptul mol of funtionl vlution of osystms. Th numrs rfr to susqunt stps in th rsrh: For th onomil nlysis th stps wr 1) intifition of osystm srvis 2) stimtion of thir onomi vlu n 6) mpping of ths vlus. For th ologil nlysis th stps wr 3) intifition of osystm funtions n 4) funtionl groups, fol y 5) stimtion of th funtionl (ologil) vlu of survy sits to support osystm srvis s on th rprsnttion of funtionl groups. Stp 7) intifition of thrts tht impt th funtionl vlu of sits fll outsi th sop of this rsrh. Th hrtrs rfr to th rltionships twn omponnts: A) whih funtions n unrlying prosss n struturs trmin th livry of h osystm srvi, B) whih funtionl groups hv funtionl rol to support h osystm funtion, C) wht is th funtionl vlu of survy sits, msurs s th rprsnttion of h funtionl group t h survy sit n D) wht is th funtionl vlu t survy sits for th potntil livry of h osystm srvi. 15

16 2.2.1 Funtionl group pproh Th rsrh mtho how to ollt t n nlyz osystm funtionl vlu ws s on funtionl group pproh. Funtionl groups r fin s olltion of spis tht prform similr funtion irrsptiv of thir txonomi ffinitis (Stnk n Dthir, 1994). This funtionl group pproh hs n slt for thr rsons: First, it hlps to simplify th ologil nlysis s it prmits n xmintion of pttrns without th n for til t olltion t spis lvl (Stnk n Dthir, 1994). Son, it provis th sis for mnging unrtinty in onsrvtion y mintining not iniviul spis ut th funtionl groups tht support ynmi ologil prosss (Bllwoo t l., 2004) n sustin osystm srvis (Hughs t l., 2005). Thir, it is possil to lssify funtionl groups oring to th fous n ns of th rsrh, s on ithr morphologil, physiologil, hviourl, iohmil or trophi ritri (Stnk, 2001). With rgrs to th son rson, funtionl runny of iniviul spis pns on th rspons ivrsity twn spis in th funtionl group. Within funtionl group spis rihnss trmins th funtionl runny, whry th loss of on spis is potntilly ompnst for y nothr spis (Bllwoo t l., 2004). This ts s n insurn ginst nvironmntl hng, howvr funtionl runny is infftiv if thr is rspons ivrsity (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Rspons ivrsity is th rng of rsponss to nvironmntl hng y spis within funtionl group (Elmqvist t l., 2003) for xmpl iffrns twn orl spis in lhing s rspons to ris in s surf tmprtur. With rgrs to thir rson, fish funtionl groups wr slt s on hviourl n trophi hrtristis n orl funtionl groups wr slt s on morphologil hrtristis. Fish funtionl groups r gnrlly us synonymously with guils of spis from iffrnt trophi lvls in th foo hin. Guils r spis with similr rsour us, lik foo rsours us y hrivors, plnktivors, invrtivors n pisivors (Blonl, 2003). This lso rflts thir rol in trnsfrring nrgy to th nxt lvl in th foo hin (Don t l., 1996). Fish funtionl groups hv lso n intifi y thir rols in osystm prosss (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Hrivors for xmpl r thn split in su- groups of srping, roving, roing n rowsing hrivors (Bllwoo t l., 2004), us ths iffrns in fing hviour r importnt for thir funtionl rol in iffrnt ky ologil prosss suh s grzing of lg (Mumy, 2006; Mumy t l., 2006) n iorosion of orls through srping of orl prts whil grzing lg (Huthings n Kin, 1986). Corl funtionl groups hv lso n intifi y thir funtionl rols in th ky ologil prosss, suh s lifition n onstrution of rf strutur (Bllwoo t l., 2004) for ostl prottion n provision of hitt n shltr. Sltion ritri us for orl funtionl groups wr hrtristis tht ply rol in ths prosss, suh s orl morphology. Morphology is th prtiulr form of n orgnism (Lvin, 2000) so pning on th shp of orl it provis rtin strngth n strutur Stp 1, 2 n 6: Eonomil nlysis Stp 1 rfrs to th intifition of osystm srvis on Bonir tht wr slt for th stimtion of thir onomi vlu in stp 2, whih ws input for stp 6 to ssign onomi vlus t sptil sl to spifi rs on Bonir in vlu mp. Stp 1, 2 n 6 r prt of th onomil nlysis rri out y projt oorintor Esthr Wolfs n rsrhrs of th Institut for Environmntl Stuis (IVM) of VU Univrsity n s suh wr not prt of this thsis rsrh. Howvr, sin th im of my rsrh w y nlyzing th funtionl rltionships twn osystm omponnts n how thy fft th provision of srvis, it ws importnt to trmin th rltionship twn srvis n funtions. 16

17 Furthrmor, th funtionl vlution of hitts n lotions ssign funtionl vlus t sptil sl to rs on Bonir, whih oul lso us s input for th vlu mp. Th projt oorintor provi, with input from IVM n IMARES, list of osystm srvis livr y ll ky osystms on Bonir s prt of th projt n spifi in hptr 1.1.2, inluing orl rfs. Only for sltion of ths srvis th onomi vlu ws stimt, pning on t vilility n fsiility to us pproprit vlution thniqus. Eosystm srvis of orl rfs s intifi in stp 1 r rport in hptr This rport os not furthr lort on stp 2, th onomi vlution mthos n rsults. Stp 6 is rifly rss in hptr to lort how funtionl vlus t sptil sl oul us in th vlu mp Stp 3, 4 n 5: Eologil nlysis In stp 3 ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs unrlying osystm funtions of orl rfs hitts wr intifi. This ws on y mns of litrtur rviw, using s strting point th lvn osystm prosss intifi y Hrorn t l. (2006) s prsnt in tl 1 of th thir thortil onpt. Aitionlly, osystm prosss n struturs whih r onsir ssntil for orl rf rsilin oring to th litrtur wr inlu. (A) Th rltionship twn ologil funtions intifi in stp 3 n osystm srvis intifi in stp 1 is rport in th rltionship mtrix A in hptr In stp 4 th funtionl groups of rf fish n orl wr intifi s on thir funtionl rols in th ky osystm prosss in orl rf hitts, s intifi in stp 3. In ition, othr initors or kyston spis othr thn rf fish n orl wr inlu if onsir n importnt initor for ky ologil prosss, for xmpl s urhins n thir funtionl rol in grzing of lg. (B) Th rltionship twn funtionl groups slt in stp 4 n ologil funtions intifi in stp 3 is prsnt in rltionship mtrix B in hptr In stp 5 of th ologil nlysis funtionl vlu of hitts n lotions is ssign similr to th pproh in th thir thortil onpt of Hrorn t l. (2006). Funtionl vlu is fin s th importn of h hitt to h ologil funtion (Hrorn t l., 2006). Th importn is msur s th rprsnttion of fish n orl funtionl groups in h hitt t n orinl sl (3=, 2=, 1=, 0=non), s on fish nsitis n nthi ovr. Slt orl rf hitts wr th shl zon n th rf zon, s xplin in hptr Ths two hitts wr survy t 116 lotions on Bonir n Klin Bonir, for whih sit sltion is rfrr to hptr (C) Th rprsnttion of funtionl groups in th shl zon n rf zon t 116 survy lotions is rport in mtris C.1 n C.2 in hptr 4 for fish n orls rsptivly. Ths mtris show for h funtionl group th funtionl vlu t 232 sits, whih numr of sits rsults from oupling hitts n lotions. (D) Th orinl sl vlus of funtionl groups from mtrix C nl smi- quntittiv nlysis of th hitt funtionl vlu t 232 sits to support osystm srvis. For h osystm srvi th funtionl groups with funtionl rol in th livry of tht osystm srvi wr slt using th stlish rltionships twn srvis n funtions of mtrix A n funtions n funtionl groups of mtrix B. Orinl sls of slt funtionl groups 17

18 wr summ, inluing wighting ftor oring to th lvl of importn, ssntil or supporting, for srvi livry. Th rsulting mtrix D ws us to prou funtionl vlu mps in hptr 5, whih wr nlys to fin out whih prts of th isln r ologilly importnt for whih osystm srvis Stp 6 n 7: Vlu mp n Thrt nlysis Stp 6 is th onomi vlu mp, n ssign vlu to th most prious rs for onsrvtion lik ioivrsity hotspots (Wolfs, 2011). This vlu mp is sign y IVM through mpping th onomi vlu of osystm srvis. Eonomi vlution stimts irt us, inirt us n non- us vlu. As mntion for irt us vlus r sy to stimt (Vn Bukring t l., 2007) n sy to mp, us th lotion of us is usully known. Inirt us vlus r mor iffiult to stimt us of th omplxity to stimt th lvl of us in rltion to th osystm (Vn Bukring t l., 2007) n lso mor iffiult to mp s th unrlying osystm funtion n not th lotion of us ns to mpp. Thrfor it is importnt to inlu in th vlu mp not only th onomi vlu, ut lso th funtionl vlu of hitt lotions to osystm funtions, us th unrlying ologil prosss n struturs n to onsrv to sustin th futur livry of osystm srvis. Suh funtionl vlu mp lights hotspots of funtionl vlu to osystm funtions tht hv th pity to livr th osystm srvis. Ths hotspots of funtionl vlu n thn onsir for onsrvtion (Hrorn t l., 2006). Suh mp lso rvls rs of r snsitivity, rsistn or rsilin to nvironmntl prssurs. As prt of this rsrh, svrl mps wr prou. In hptr 4 mps of funtionl group rprsnttion t th survy sits r rport for h funtionl group. Funtionl vlu mps for h osystm srvi, showing th funtionl vlu of survy sits to support osystm srvis, r rport in hptr 5. Stp 7 is thrt nlysis, whih prou n ovrviw of irt n inirt rivrs of hng(wolfs, 2011). Th funtionl vlu mp is m mor informtiv if thrt mp is, showing susptiility to impts tht r likly to ru funtionl vlus (Hrorn t l., 2006). For this thrt nlysis is rquir of irt n inirt, nturl n nthropogni rivrs of hng n thir impt on funtionl vlus, whih fll outsi th sop of this rsrh. Howvr, in th nlysis of funtionl vlus mps n ttmpt ws m to link th outom with th sn or prsn of intifi thrts suh s ostl vlopmnt, ruis tourism (Wolfs, 2011), pollution from soli wst n swg, run- off, limt hng, iss, invsiv spis n ovrfishing (Mstrs t l., 2010). Furthrmor mny rivrs of hng will hv irt impt on ithr hitts or funtionl groups: ovrfishing might us pltion of rtin fish stok tht r ritil within thir funtionl group; nutrint loing n pollution my ltr ky osystm prosss from on stt to n ltrntiv stt; hitt strution rus th siz of th hitt n thry th vilility of strutur. This rsrh filitts n nlysis of potntil rivrs of hng n thir impts y proviing frmwork of ritil funtionl group n ky osystm prosss tht r rquir for hlthy osystm tht livrs osystm srvis in sustinl mnnr Hitts This rsrh i not opt ll tn hitts tht hv n us in th thir thortil onpt of Hrorn t l. (2006), whih lssifition is s on ostl gomorphology n nthi ovr (Mumy n Hrorn, 1999). Inst only two orl rf hitts wr intifi for th snorkl survy for th foling rsons. First, hitts pr thn pproximtly 10 mtr oul not inlu in th snorkl survy u to pth limits in visul nsus from th surf. Son, not ll hitts r 18

19 prsnt in th gomorphology on th lwr ost of Bonir, suh s mngrovs n sgrss lgoons whih r prt of th tn hitt typs of Hrorn t l. (2006). Th two typs of orl rf hitt istinguish in th snorkl survy wr: shl rf flt (pproximtly 0-5m) n pr for rf (5-10m), inluing th rf rst n th shorwr rf flt with rul, sn n som orl pths. Rf is th prt of th rf swr from th rf rst to th uppr forrf with orl- omint nthi ovr (pproximtly 5-10m). This lssifition ws s on simpl orl rf zontion into k rf, rf rst n for rf. Eh of ths zons inlus multipl hitts. Bk rfs, lso known s lgoons, hv sgrss s, mngrov forsts, sn plins n pth rf [5]. A hrtristis of fringing rfs is tht th rf grows t th g of th ost without intrvning lgoon (Pint, 1998) whih is pplil for Bonir whr suh lgoons r snt on th survy lwr ost. Rf rsts r th g of th rf slop n inlu lgl rigs n rf flt hitts. Algl rigs hrly our in th Crin, inst winwr rf rsts r omint y th rnhing orl spis Aropor plmt. Rf flts r hitts ompos of orl rul n ront sn t th shorwr si of th rf rst, osionlly us to not th ntir k rf zon [5]. Bus th k rf on th lwr shor of Bonir is virtully non- hitt typ is th rf rst, inluing th rf flt with rul, sn n som pths of orl. For rfs r hrtriz y rf sloping from th rf rst to th sfloor with <45 slop (Mumy n Hrorn, 1999). In this rsrh only th uppr for rf is inlu, whih typilly xtns swr from th rf rst to 15 mtr pth [5]. 2.3 Dt olltion Th hrt in figur 5 givs n ovrviw how of rquir t, olltion mthos n t nlysis outputs. Figur 5. Dt rquirmnts, mthos for t olltion n outputs of t nlyss 19

20 Dt olltion ws on through omintion of primry t olltion on Bonir n sonry t olltion in th Nthrlns through n xtnsiv litrtur rviw. Primry t olltion inlu snorkl survy, n intrisiplinry stkholr workshop n ky informnt intrviws. Th lttr hlp to ollt itionl sonry t from gry litrtur Litrtur rviw Th litrtur rviw ws on s prprtion to sign th rsrh pproh inluing thortil frmwork, onptul mol n mthos to ollt n nlys t. Th litrtur rviw ws lso us to intify osystm funtions of orl rfs, unrlying ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs n ruil funtionl groups n thir funtionl rol in ths prosss n struturs, in orr to nswr th first, son n thir rsrh qustion. Rviw litrtur inlu minly pr- rviw pprs, som rfrn ooks s wll s gry litrtur rports prou n pulish y govrnmntl gnis, non- govrnmntl orgniztions n sintifi institutions Primry t olltion: Snorkl survy Th snorkl survy im to nswr th fourth rsrh qustion y ollting primry t on prsn of fish n orl funtionl groups on s mny lotions s fsil within prio of two wks n givn th wthr n wv onitions. Du to th usul wvs n iffiult ss on th winwr ost, rfs inlu in th survy wr on th lwr wstrn ost of Bonir n th ntir ost of Klin Bonir. Ths lwr fringing rfs typilly hv trr of mtr with tht gntly slops to rop- off t 5-15 mtr pth (Vn Duyl, 1985). Th sign of th survy ws visul nsus mtho using snorkl inst of th mor frquntly us su. Snorkl survys r mntion in svrl fish, mro- invrtrt n nthi ommunity nsus mthos (Hill n Wilkinson, 2004) n it ws slt for this rsrh to inrs th numr of lotions n ovr lrgr r, nmly th ntir lwr ost. A survy ovring this lrg n r hs oring to our knowlg not n on sin th mpping of th rfs of Bonir y Vn Duyl (1985). A survy with su trnsts hs limittions in mximum iv tim n minimum surf intrvls twn ivs, whil snorkl trnst took lss th 30 minuts inluing trnsporttion to th nxt trnst, mning trnsts pr y wr fsil. Othr vntgs using snorkl r tht fish r lss istur y snorklr ompr to ivr (Hill n Wilkinson, 2004) n tht ounting iniviuls from th sustrtum to th wtr surf (Grn n Bllwoo, 2008) is sir whil looking own from th surf. Th isvntgs using snorkl r limit pth rngs tht n survy (i.. not th rop- off) n ru ury to osrv smll or rypti spis t grtr pth. To prvnt osrvr is in th osrvtions on osrvr ollt fish n nothr osrvr ollt orl t, to t lst mk osrvr is onsistnt n inrs prision. Furthrmor trnsts wr vio- ror to mk til nlysis of th nthos possil. Sit sltion: Trnsts wr slt in Googl Erth y mrking trnst sit vry 500 mtr. Sits wr givn trnst intifition (ID): B00 B96 for sits on th lwr ost of Bonir n KB00- KB20 for sits long th 11 km ostlin of Klin Bonir. Evn ID numrs (B00, B02, t.) mrking h kilomtr wr ntr in Googl Erth, s shown on th lrg mp in figur 6. If possil sits wr ss from shor, for xmpl th sits mrk y th yl GPS trk lin on th smll mp in figur 6. Sits not ssil from shor wr survy y ot, for xmpl th sits with th lu GPS trk lin. Two sits (B23 n B68) h to skipp u to ss prolms, i.. t th oil storg trminl lrg oil tnkr of 330 mtr lok ss to on of our trnsts. Longitu n ltitu oorints of slt trnst sits wr stor in portl GPS rivr. This GPS ws us to srh h sit uring th survy, n GPS wypoint of th tul sit ws m t th strt of h 20

21 trnst. An itionl portl GPS rivr ws sl in wtrproof s n rri on th wtr surf uring snorkl osrvtions to msur istn n irtion of trnsts. Riving GPS signls work wll through th s n t th surf. F igur 6. Lrg mp: plnn survy sits on Bonir (trnst ID B00-B96) n Klin Bonir (trnst ID KB00- KB20), whry vn numrs wr ntr ing on kilomtr prt from h othr. Smll mp: los-up of tul survy sits ss from shor (yl GPS trk) n y ot (lu GPS trk), whry th short trks prpniulr to th ost pit trnsts survy n th onnting lins show th rout trvll y r or y ot to ss th sit. Trnst sription: Trnsts wr prpniulr to th ost, swimming from th shor to th rop- off n k n th othr wy roun whn ssing th sit y ot inst of y r. This mnt h trnst ws ovr twi. For orl on trk ws vio ror, n th othr trk ws us to rgistr nthi funtionl groups. For fish on trk ws us to rgistr unn of funtionl groups n th othr trk to rgistr fish ioivrsity of othr spis. Osrvr swimming sp ws on vrg 8 mtr pr minut. Rommn sp is 10 mtr pr minut for vio trnsts n 6 mtr pr minut for rypti Srrni (grouprs) whil for fish in gnrl onstnt sp is mor importnt s mor fish is sn whn swimming sly (Hill n Wilkinson, 2004). Trnsts wr onut twn 8.30 n hours, whih is within to th rommn tim for fish trnsts n los to th rommn tim for vio trnsts from 8.30 till hours (Hill n Wilkinson, 2004). 21

22 Fish osrvtion: Fish minimum siz for inlusion ws 10 m or 5 m for smllr spis suh s Pomntri (hromis n msls). Fish trnst imnsion ws 2.5 mtr on ithr si of n imginry trnst lin. This trnst with of 5 mtr n th vril trnst lngth msur y GPS wr us to stnriz fish ounts pr trnst to fish unn pr 100 m 2, unit ommonly us in fish survys inluing in th sonry t ollt. Aim of th rsrh ws to gt unn of funtionl groups pr lotion msur t smi- quntittiv sl (3=, 2=, 1=), ut this ws s on mor til, quntittiv t olltion. This involv mor t to ollt, ut nvrthlss ws us to voi intrprttion of sls uring osrvtion n to filitt tht osrvtions uring th ntir trk wr inlu s ojtiv s possil. In totl 89 spis wr inlu in th survy s list in ppnix B: 49 spis from 7 fmilis (Sri; Anthuri; Pomntri; Hmuli; Lutjni; Srrni n Crngi) plus 8 prtory spis from nothr 7 fmilis wr istinguish to ssss funtionl groups; nothr 32 spis from 17 fmilis wr inlu for th ioivrsity ssssmnt. In ition fish mximum siz ws ror for Srrni n lrg spis of Lutjni n Crngi (80 m or ov). Corl osrvtion: For th nthi omposition th prntg ovr of mssiv, rnhing n soft orls, mro- lg, ynotri mts, spongs, orl rul, sn n rok ws ror s on visul pprisl of th survy r. In ition thrts or impts from thrts to stony orls wr ror, suh s orl mortlity, isss, lhing, prrotfish (Sri spp.) it mrks n prsn of nuisn spis, suh s tunit mts (Triimnum solium). Othr prmtrs ror wr orl ivrsity, orl mximum siz, s urhins (Dim ntillrum) n rf topogrphy on sl from 0 to 4 whry 0 = no vrtil rlif, 1 = n sprs rlif, 2 = ut wispr rlif, 3 = mortly omplx, 4 = vry omplx with numrous vs n ovrhngs. Equipmnt: Dt wr rgistr on fish n orl tshts of wtrproof ppr, for whih is rfrr to th xmpls in ppnix C. Mtrils us wr wtrproof ppr, unrwtr slt n pnil on string. As mntion rlir th osrvr roring orl lso us Snyo vio mr typ vp- h2000, two GPS, Qstrz lp timr to ror trks n Grmin Trx H to srh trnst sits n mk wigh points, n Ottrox wtrproof s for th GPS rri t th wtr surf. In ition STINAPA ots, th hif mrin prk rngr n ot rivr voluntr wr vill uring six survy ys to ss sits tht wr not ssil y r from shor. Trining n tsting: Prior to th survy thr ws mpl tim for m, th osrvr ollting fish t, to rfrsh n prtis fish intifition skills, using lmint wtrproof fish intifition rs. Ths rs, for whih is rfrr to ppnix D, show spis y funtionl group with thir sintifi n ommon nm, s wll s thir mximum n vrg totl lngth, s on informtion n piturs from FishBs [6]. A pilot of nin trnst ws on fw wks prior to strt of th survy, to improv th sign of th t ntry shts, to giv input into th orinl sling (of,, lvls) n to mk rlisti plnning. Of th plnn sits in lvn ys plus two spr ys, tul t olltion ws omplt oring to pln in lvn ys Primry t olltion: Stkholr workshop sssion Th stkholr workshop hl on Bonir from My 2011 ws th kik- Th workshop ws l y n nvironmntl onomist of IVM n ttn y lol n intrntionl stkholrs from th fils of orl rf ology, mrin iology n ntur onsrvtion from STINAPA, th orgnistion mnging th mrin n trrstril prks, th S Turtl Consrvtion Bonir (STCB) n rsrh instituts Crmi on Curo n CIEE on Bonir, s wll s y rprsnttivs of th govrnmnt, ulturl n tourism stors. In this workshop sssion on th 22

23 ologil omponnt of th projt ws prsnt y Erik Mstrs of IMARES n myslf. Th ojtiv of this sssion ws twofol. First, this rsrh pproh n th snorkl survy wr prsnt. Son, in four intrisiplinry working groups stkholrs wr sk to intify impts of givn thrt on hitts n osystm prosss n to trmin th rltionship twn thrt n osystm srvi livry. Th four min thrts for Bonir, slt uring th workshop y th stkholrs, wr invsiv spis, ostl vlopmnt, ruis tourism n soli wst Sonry t olltion Sonry t rfrs to rnt orl rf stuis spifilly on Bonir, suh s gry litrtur rports (Stnk n Arnol, 2009) n orl rf rsilin ssssmnts (Bruknr t l., 2010; IUCN, 2011) s wll s pulish stuis on th orl n fish ommunitis of Bonir (Snin t l., 2008; Sommr t l., 2011). Ths t wr ollt through prtiiption in th stkholr workshop n ky informnt intrviw with th Bonir Ntionl Mrin Prk mngr to gt ss to unrlying t of th rports. 2.4 Dt ntry n qulity ontrol Dt wr ntr from th wtrproof ppr in n Exl tsht ily uring th filwork, immitly ftr finishing th survy. Avntg ws tht unlr t wr ntr orrt in Exl y hking th vio, mmorizing th survy sits of th y or onsulting th t or mmory of th othr osrvr. Dily qulity ontrol on typing rrors in Exl ws on th nxt morning prior to strting th survy n rsing th t to us th wtrproof ppr gin. Aftr th filwork ws finish, qulity ontrol of Exl tshts ws on to hk on ompltnss n orrtnss, to stnriz t ntris n to prpr t sts for sttistil nlysis in softwr pplition R. Dt wr omplt with oorints of wigh points n trnst lngths msur from th GPS survy trks tht wr ownlo into Googl Erth. Fw missing t suh s n tim n fish mximum siz wr omplt from rsptivly th tsht of th othr osrvr, n y lulting th vrg mximum siz. Dt wr orrt for minor inonsistnis in t rgistrtion t th first y of th survy, whn ourrn inst of unn ws ror for thos spis tht wr inlu to msur ioivrsity. Th prprtion for t nlysis inlu filling mpty lls in th t sht with vlu zro n trnsposing t to gt t pr survy in row n t pr prmtr in olumn s prfrr y sttistil pplitions suh s R. In th fish tsht th foling lultions wr, us ollt t wr ounts of iniviuls t spis of spis of h of ll spis); fish ioivrsity (ount of spis); n trnst siz in m 2 (lngth x with). Finlly, stnriztion of t ws on to nl omprison with quntittiv sonry t from othr survys n to pply orinl sls in th t nlysis tht wr s on th stnr unit us in litrtur. Fish unn ws stnriz from numr of fish pr trnst into th unit fish pr 100 m 2 (fish/ trnst siz in m 2 x 100 m 2 ). Bnthi omposition xprss s prntg ws stnriz to up to 100 prnt. Fish ioivrsity ws not stnriz to 100 m 2, us msurmnt ws s on spis sn, irrsptivly of th numr of fish pr spis ror. 2.5 Dt nlysis Dt nlysis ws twofol. First, th litrtur rviw ws us to nlyz th rltionships twn funtionl groups n osystm funtions s wll s osystm funtions n osystm srvis. Son, primry t wr nlyz to trmin th funtionl vlu of hitts n lotions, using sonry t from gry litrtur to trmin pproprit orinl sls. 23

24 ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Figur 7. Stps in th t nlysis (1) Rltionship Eosystm Funtions (ESF) Eosystm Srvis (ESS) (2) Rltionship Eosystm Funtions (ESF) Funtionl Groups (FGr) in 3 stps (2) Eologil Prosss n Biophysil Struturs (P&S) unrlying Eosystm Funtions (ESF) (2) Funtionl Groups (FGr) s on thir funtionl rol in Prosss n Struturs (P&S) (2) Funtionl Groups (FGr) n thir funtionl rol in Eosystm Funtions (ESF) (3) Funtionl Vlu of Hitts n Lotions (H) Eosystm Srvis (ESS) in 2 stps (3) Funtionl Groups (FGr) rprsnttion in Hitts n Lotions (H) (3) Importn of Hitts n Lotions (H) to support Eosystm Srvis (ESS) Rltionship nlysis Two rltionships wr nlyz in th litrtur stuy: (1) funtionl groups vrsus osystm funtions n (2) osystm funtions vrsus osystm srvis. Th outom of this nlysis is prsnt in tls or mtris listing.g. olumns with ll funtions n rows with ll srvis n th prsn or sn of rltionship twn h funtion n h srvi. Th rsulting mtris from this rltionship nlysis r illustrt in figur 7 n xplin for h stp : (1) Th rltionship osystm funtions vrsus osystm srvis ws trmin, strting with th intifition of osystm srvis n osystm funtions pplil for orl rfs on Bonir. Eosystm srvis wr intifi using th TEEB lssifition of 22 srvis s mntion in hptr n list in ppnix A. This list ws spifi for srvis provi y orl rf osystms, s on litrtur. Th finl shortlist only inlu srvis rlvnt for Bonir, s on osrvtions of th rsrhr n input from th projt oorintor. Eosystm funtions wr intifi from iffrnt sours of litrtur, whih r spifi in th mtris in hptr 3. (2) Th rltionship osystm funtion vrsus funtionl groups ws stlish (2), y spifying th ologil prosss n iophysil struturs n for h intifi osystm funtion (2). Thn sltion of funtionl groups ws m s on thir funtionl rol in h ologil pross n/or strutur (2). Critri for funtionl group sltion wr lso fsiility for t olltion in visul nsus survy using snorkl Funtionl vlu nlysis Th funtionl vlu nlysis to trmin th funtionl vlu of hitts n lotions to support th livry of osystm srvis onsist of two stps: (3) Anlysis of th rprsnttion of funtionl groups in hitts s on two min vrils from th primry t, unn of spis within funtionl groups n ourrn of spis to msur ioivrsity. Ourrn is fin s ror of spis, whthr on or mor fish or orl olonis. Aunn is fin s th numr of fish or prntg orl ovr ror in tht ourrn. Th funtionl vlu nlysis strt with ompring th stnriz tst of funtionl groups in ll 232 hitt lotions with th orinl sl to trmin if th lvl of importn ws,, or not importnt. Ths smi- quntittiv orinl sl lvls h n fin prior to th filwork for h funtionl group, in orr to know how to sl th quntittiv t ollt (.g. # fish/100m 2, % orl ovr). Th mtho us to st rngs for h lvl ws s on quntittiv t from rnt stuis on th fish n orl ommunity sttus on Bonir. For stting lvls of orl funtionl groups quntittiv t of two rsilin stuis y IUCN (2011) n Bruknr t l. (2010) 24

25 n th rsrh of Sommr t l. (2011) wr us, lthough unrlying t of th lttr two wr not vill. For stting lvls of fish funtionl groups quntittiv t of th stuy of Stnk n Arnol (2009), Hrorn t l. (2006) n t of th pilot wr us. In orr to lult with th rsults in th funtionl vlu nlysis in stp 3, th orinl sl ws pt to numril sl from 3 (=), 2 (=), 1(=) n 0 (=no rprsnttion). Aftr sling th 232 t sts to trmin th funtionl vlu hk ws on if orinl sl lvls wr rlistilly st, y hking th prntg ourn of, n lvls for h funtionl group. For thos with unrlisti outoms, for xmpl mslfish h funtionl vlu in 50% of th lotions, th orinl sl rngs wr just. First, th istriution of ollt t (numr of fish pr lotion) ws tst for normlity using th Shpiro- Wilk normlity tst. Thn th istriution ws squr root trnsform to pproh norml istriution n th orinl sl lvls wr just suh tht th powr of th squr root mn ( mn) 2 ws within th rng of th lvl. (3) Anlysis of th importn of hitts to support th livry of osystm srvis strt with th sltion of funtionl groups with funtionl rol in th livry of h osystm srvi, using mtrix A n mtrix B s sri in th onptul mol. Thn for h hitt n lotion numril funtionl vlu ws lult s on th sum of funtionl vlus of slt funtionl groups from mtrix C.1 n C.2, inluing wighting ftor to xprss th lvl of importn for srvi livry. Th rsulting mtrix D with ro rng of numril funtionl vlus (0 to 71) ws trnsform into th sm smi- quntittiv orinl sl from 0 to 3, to nl mpping of hitts t th lvl of,, or no importn. 25

26 3 RESULTS RELATIONSHIP ANALYSIS In this hptr th rltionships twn osystm srvis, funtions, prosss n struturs r xplor. Chptr 3.1 strts with n ovrviw of finitions n iffrns twn ths trms. Th foling hptrs lort on th intifition of orl rf osystm srvis, funtions, prosss n struturs. Th intifition of srvis mphsizs how srvis r nfiil in th soio- onomi ontxt of Bonir. This nswrs th first rsrh qustion in hptr Th intifition of funtions, prosss n struturs hs n ologil pproh n mphsizs on how orl rf osystm funtions. Th son rsrh qustion y linking th funtions intifi in hptr with th unrlying prosss n struturs in hptr In groups s n initor or proxy of prosss n struturs. Foling th onptul mol of this rsrh, two rltionships twn omponnts of th mol r stlish in this hptr: (A) Th rltionship twn funtions n srvis thy livr in Mtrix A in hptr n (B) th rltionship twn funtionl groups n th funtions thy support in Mtrix B in hptr Th lttr is us in hptr 5 to trnslt th rprsnttion of funtionl groups t 232 sits oupling hitts n lotions to funtionl vlu of hitt lotions to support osystm funtions tht r nssry to provi osystm srvis of orl rfs on Bonir. 3.1 Eosystm funtion, srvi or pross? Th trms funtion srvi r us intrhngly in sintifi litrtur (Csr, 2000), s wll. In this rsrh th finitions of TEEB r fol, whih wr lry introu in th thortil frmwork in hptr 2 n summriz hr. Eosystm srvis r th irt n inirt nfits popl otin from osystms (MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010). Dirt nfits n xtrtiv if goos r hrvst from th osystm or non- xtrtiv if th osystm provis th snry or informtion rquir for soil n ulturl srvis. Inirt nfits r lrgly invisil, suh s th nfits for humn hlth, sfty n wll- ing of most rgulting srvis. Eosystm funtions r sust of intrtions twn osystm struturs n prosss tht trmin th pity of n osystm to provi osystm srvis (TEEB, 2010). Funtions rfr to th funtioning of osystms n th potntil to provi srvis, rgrlss of th us of th srvis. Th us pns on whthr thr r nfiiris to njoy th nfit whih is trmin y th soio- onomi ontxt rthr thn th osystm itslf. Eosystm prosss r physil, hmil or iologil hngs or rtions in n osystm (TEEB, 2010). Cor osystm prosss inlu proution, omposition, rosion, nutrint yling n fluxs of nutrints n nrgy (MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010). Eosystm struturs r th iologil n physil rhittur of n osystm. Th omposition of spis mking up th rhittur my vry (TEEB, 2010) n n stony orl spis tht provi physil struturs n fish spis tht r prt of th iologil omposition of n osystm. 3.2 Linking osystm funtions n osystm srvis Th rltionship twn osystm funtions n osystm srvis ws xmin s prt of th nirl first stp in th t nlysis s illustrt, whih ws xplin in furthr til in figur 7 of hptr

27 ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Intifition of osystm srvis Th osystm srvis whih r: fishris; mtrils; ostl prottion; tourism; rrtion; mnity srvis; knowlg n ution (Wolfs, prs. omm., 15/8/2011). For th purpos of this rsrh, to trmin th rltionship twn osystm srvis n osystm funtions, ll osystm srvis provi y orl rfs in Bonir wr intifi. Bus in sintifi litrtur th trms funtions n srvis r us intrhngly (Csr, 2000), it ws importnt to mk lr istintion wht in th ontxt of this rsrh wr onsir srvis n wht funtions. Tl 2. Eosystm srvis provi y orl rfs on Bonir. TEEB numrs rfr to whih 22 srvis of thir lssifition r pplil for orl rf osystms. Provisioning srvis ECOSYSTEM SERVICES TEEB rf # 1 Sfoo prouts Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt 2wort1 3 3 Rw mtril for miins 2 5 Rgulting srvis 4 Shorlin prottion Wst ssimiltion 11 6 Biologil mintnn of rsilin 15 Hitt srvis 7 Mintnn of hitts 16 8 Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity 17 Culturl srvis 9 Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion 1 ruit Support of tourism n rrtion Support of ulturl intity 1ruit Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis 1 22 ¹ Srvis inlu for onomi vlution in th projt ² Goos xtrt on Bonir in th pst, ut without tul us vlu urrntly. Intifi srvis s shown in tl 2 wr tgoriz into provisioning, rgulting, hitt n ulturl srvis n numr oring to th 22 srvis of th TEEB lssifition (D Groot t l., 2010), for whih is rfrr to ppnix A. All 22 srvis intifi y TEEB wr vlut in this rsrh, ut not ll r pplil for orl rf osystms. For xmpl limt rgultion through ron squstrtion of tmosphri ron ioxi (CO 2 ) is srvi of ons (Wr t l., 1991; Nllmnn t l., 2009), ut not srvi of orl rf osystms s rfs tully ontriut to th glol ron yl (Wr t l., 1991). Ons r th lrgst long- trm ron sink, us 55% of tmosphri CO 2 is ptur y mrin orgnisms, whry mngrovs n sgrss ount for most 27

28 of th ron storg in on simnts (Nllmnn t l., 2009). Bus orls trnsform CO 2 into lium ront (CCO 3 ) rfs r oftn thought of s ron sinks s wll. Howvr, th pripittion of lium ront is ompni y shift in th ph of th swtr tht rsults in rls of CO 2. This is prt of th nturl CO 2 yl (Wr t l., 1991) n orl rf osystms ovr only 0.17 prnt of th glol mrin r (Costnz t l., 1997), so th glol impt of orl rfs s ron sour is ngligil (Wr t l., 1991). Morg n Folk (1999) intifi goos n srvis spifilly provi y orl rfs, whih form th sis for th intifition of srvis in this rsrh. Som srvis r not pplil in Bonir, for xmpl xtrtion of fish n shlls for us s ornmntls n xtrtion of orl loks, rul n sn from th rf for us s uiling mtrils, us ll rsour xtrtion xpt fishing is prohiit in th Bonir Ntionl Mrin Prk [7]. Som othr srvis intifi y Morg n Folk (1999) wr within th ontxt of this rsrh onsir funtions or prosss, foling th finitions of TEEB (D Groot t l., 2010). For xmpl nitrogn (N 2 ) fixtion, th onvrsion of issolv tmosphri N 2 into orgni nitrogn ompouns (Cstro n Hur, 2008). This is onsir supporting srvi, us it is n unrlying pross tht supports proutivity in nutrint poor nvironmnts suh s orl rfs. Supporting srvis r omitt y TEEB s osystm srvi (D Groot t l., 2010) n thrfor not inlu s osystm srvi in this rsrh. Th twlv intifi osystm srvis of orl rfs on Bonir s list in tl 2 r rifly introu, inluing thir rlvn for Bonir. Provisioning srvis Provisioning srvis r th prouts otin from osystms (MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010), inluing foo, rw mtrils n mil rsours. 1) Sfoo prouts from rf- rlt fishris onstitut 9-12 (Morg n Folk, 1999). Corl rf fishris r smll- sl n r not prt of th glol FAO ts whih ovrs minly inustril fishris, so (Puly, 2008). Puly (2008) istinguishs thr typs of orl rf fishris: (1) rrtionl fishris in inom rs, (2) tritionl rf fishris unr tritionl ruls in inom rs n (3) smll- sl fishris, suh s tritionl rf fishrs n fish supplirs of tourist rsorts n th lif- fish xportrs. Corl rf fishris in Bonir flls within th lttr typ, whih is limit to smll- sl lol fishris using tritionl fishing mthos [7]. 2) Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt involvs mining of orl rf loks, orl rul n sn, to us s onstrution mtril or ph rgultor (Morg n Folk, 1999). As mntion ov suh rsour xploittion is not l in th Bonir Ntionl Mrin Prk. Howvr, orls hv n n r still xtrt from th limston pltux t th northrn ost of Bonir y srping off th top lyr of limston. Th rw mtril is rush to prou lim, whih is us for hous onstrution. Limston mining is offiilly prohiit sin 2006, ut th lw provis for onitionl grmnts with mining ompnis to l thm to ontinu thir tivitis (Bonir, 2005). Although this form of orl mining os not involv xtrtion of orls from th mrin nvironmnt, ut from nint rfs tht ovr gologil tims m prt of th isln, this is srvi tht origints from orl rf struturs. 3) Rw mtril for miins hv n isovr in sws, spongs, molluss, orls, gorgonins n s nmons (Morg n Folk, 1999) s wll s in th mrin miroil ommunitis inhiting tunits (Fouk, prs. omm., 8/9/2011). A lrg numr of ompouns r foun in lu- grn lg 28

29 of whih most r usful s iohmil rsrh tool, ut fw hv th potntil to vlop into ommril prouts (Moor, 1996). Intifying nturl prouts n thir ntinr, ntimiroil, nti- inflmmtory or nti- ogulting proprtis s wll s thir iosynthti pthwys is hllnging (Bumpus t l., 2009). Nvrthlss mor thn hlf of th 1000 ntitril n ntinr miins introu from 1981 to 2006 r nturl prouts or synthti rivtivs throf (Bumpus t l., 2009). In th 1970s on suh nturl prout ws isovr n xtrt from th orl rf on Bonir, ynotril symiont (Prohloron imni) tht inhits host siin invrtrts (tunits). This ynotrium ws synthsiz n th rivtiv is ing us s ingrint in Nosporin, th rn nm for n orl ntiioti (Fouk, prs. omm., 8/9/2011). Rgulting srvis Rgulting srvis r th nfits otin from th rgultion of osystm prosss (MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010), inluing mortion of xtrm wthr vnts, wst ssimiltion n pst rgultion. 4) Shorlin prottion is th prottion of th ost ginst urrnts, wvs, tropil storms n hurrins y physil rrirs provi y orl rfs to prvnt rosion n mg to ostl vlopmnt n prott or rt lgoons n simntry nvironmnts (Morg n Folk, 1999; Morg n Rönnäk, 2003). Bonir lis on th southrn g of th hurrin lt, n roughly on vry 100 yrs xprins onsirl mg (MDNAA, 2010). In th lst s hurrin tivity in th wstrn Atlnti hs inrs u to inrs wtr tmprtur in th North Atlnti n rs in vrtil win shr. Ths hngs show multi- l tim sl, rson why th r hurrin tivity is xpt to ontinu for nothr 10 to 40 yrs (Golnrg t l., 2001). Most signifint tropil storms in th pst s wr Jon in 1988, Brt in 1993, Csr in 1996, Ivn in 2004, Emily in 2005, Flix in 2007 n Omr in Ivn, Emily n Flix wr lssifi s hurrin with win sps r thn 118 km/h. Also hurrin Lnny in 1999, with its ntr pssing th lssr Antills isln of Sint Mrtn, us mg in Bonir (MDNAA, 2010). Dmg vri, rnging from hvy rin n rough s to lrg wvs on th lwr ost using h rosion n mging vssls n ostl filitis (MDNAA, 2010). Normlly Bonir xprins wvs on th winwr shor (IUCN, 2011) from strly tr wins ing st to wst with osionl win rvrsls (IUCN, 2011). Most rsintil n inustril vlopmnt is t th wstrn shor n th strn shor hs lrg lgoon with mngrov forsts n sgrss s, prott y rrir rf. 5) Wst ssimiltion is th ility of orl rfs to trnsform, toxify n squstr nutrints n wsts rls y popl, suh s oil n prsistnt pollutnts (Morg n Folk, 1999). Nutrint nrihmnt ours y nitrognous nutrints from i rin n inorgni nutrints suh s nitrogn n phosphorous from frtilizrs, swg n wst wtr ishrg. Exss nutrints r rmov from th wtr through uptk y plnts n lg (Ptrson n Luhno, 1997). This inrss th supply of orgni mttr, pross ll utrophition (Nixon, 1995). Exss utrophition rus osystm srvis s onsqun of oxygn pltion n nuisn lgl looms (Ptrson n Luhno, 1997). Wtr qulity monitoring on Bonir tks pl sin 2006 to ss nutrint nrihmnt from ostl vlopmnt n ths msurmnts init thrts of utrophition n mro- lgl ovrgrowth (Bouhon t l., 2008). Sin Bonir m spil muniiplity of Crin Nthrlns in 2010 swg n soli wst trtmnt filitis on th isln r unr vlopmnt (prsonl osrvtion). Bonir hs n oil storg trminl whr trnsporttion tks pl with oil tnkrs [1] n in th pst ints suh s fir n oil tnkr mg to th nry rf hv ourr (prsonl osrvtion). BOPEC oil trminl rntly riv prmit within th frmwork of th nw BES Mritim Mngmnt Lw tht ntr into for in Otor Th prmit inlus guilins 29

30 to prvnt inints onrning fir sfty, nutil sfty, ontinmnt of oil spills n prottion of th frgil mritim nvironmnt [8]. 6) Biologil mintnn of rsilin is th ility of spis or groups of spis to rgult osystm prosss n funtions (Morg n Folk, 1999) in orr to mintin rsilint orl rfs n voi shift from fvourl orl- omint stt to n lgl- omint stt (Don, 1992; Hughs, 1994). Eologil or osystm rsilin is fin s th pity to sor isturns, to rsist hng n pt to hng in orr to kp th sm funtion, strutur n fks (Wlkr t l., 2004; Nystrom t l., 2008). Fk mhnisms n rfr to positiv or ngtiv fk loops (Mumy n Stnk, 2008). Fks tht stiliz osystm stts involv oth iologil, physil n hmil mhnisms (Shffr t l., 2001). A positiv iologil fk mhnism is grzing intnsity to rs lgl ovr whih nls orl rruitmnt n prvnts orl ovrgrowth, oth inrsing orl ovr n th struturl omplxity of th rf. This nls fish rruitmnt whih inrss grzing intnsity. A ngtiv fk loop involvs th sm prosss in rvrs irtion (Mumy n Stnk, 2008). This iologil fk mhnism on mro- lg y hrivors is n xmpl of iologil ontrol of pst spis through prtor- pry rltionships, whih is onsir n osystm srvi y TEEB (Elmqvist t l., 2010) n MEA (MEA, 2005). Suh iologil ontrol is importnt for th mintnn of orl rf rsilin, s loss of rsilin ffts th qulity n quntity of th livry of osystm srvis (Morg n Folk, 1999). Hn, mintnn of orl rf rsilin is rgulting srvi tht inirtly is nfiil for popl. Prinipl grzrs inlu prrotfish n s urhins. A rnt molling stuy of Ewrs t l. (2010) on th impt of two mjor sours of isturns on Crin orl rfs, orl lhing n hurrins, in sitution with n without prrotfish n s urhins, inlu Bonir s s stuy. Th stuy prit tht unr rlisti rgims of isturns, Bonir is mongst othr s stuy lotions st l to mintin stl prntg orl ovr, for nothr 50 yrs if s urhins r prsnt n prrotfish unxploit. This xpttion is lso u to th ft tht Bonir xprins lss intns hurrin isturn (Ewrs t l., 2010). Th mol is support mpirilly, us Bonir is mongst th hlthist rfs in th Crin urrntly (Krmr, 2003). On Bonir prrotfish r not spifilly trgt in onsrvtion mngmnt, ut thr r fish rsrvs n prrotfish is gnrlly onsir not tstful s foo (prsonl osrvtion). Howvr, it is suggst tht mintnn of rsilin y grzing hrivors is thrtn y invsiv lionfish. Lionfish onsum th hrivors, whih my ontriut to rgim shifts on Crin orl rfs (Brour t l., 2011). On Bonir rition of lionfish is tking pl through fishing for onsrvtion purposs, y giving rrtionl ivrs lin to spr fish n kill lionfish. Sin lionfish r onsir tsty n hunting is onsir hllng y numrous popl, spr fishing for lionfish n lionfish rqu prtis r now populr rrtionl n soil vnt on Bonir (prsonl osrvtion). Hitt srvis Hitt srvis r th importnt rols of osystms to provi living sp for rsint n migrtory spis, thry mintining th nursry srvi n gn pool (TEEB, 2010). 7) Mintnn of hitts rfrs to th omplx thr- imnsionl orl rf struturs tht provi spwning, nursry, ring n fing rs for mny iffrnt spis (Morg n Folk, 1999), thry proviing living sp for th st ivrsity of spis of ll xplor mrin hitts (Morg n Rönnäk, 2003). This ivrsity n unn of hitts, orls n fish is on of th rsons why orl rfs, n prtiulr thos in Bonir s th mor hlthy rfs in th Crin, r so ttrtiv for iving n snorklling. 30

31 8) Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity rfrs to th iologil ivrsity of orl rfs s th most spis- rih hitts of th worl (Morg n Folk, 1999). Bioivrsity is importnt for mintnn of gnti ioivrsity, within n twn popultions, to nl volution n ptiv rition to hitts through nturl sltion within spis (Elmqvist t l., 2010). Bioivrsity is lso onsir importnt for th ologil intgrity of th osystm (Elmqvist t l., 2010) n intgrity rflts th pity of th osystm to support srvis for popl (D Lo n Lvin, 1997). Th intgrity of systm is rtin if its omponnts n th funtionl rltionships twn omponnts r prsrv, whry omponnts in osystms rfr to th spis omposition n ivrsity in th ommunity (D Lo n Lvin, 1997). Also on Bonir th sustinl us of osystm srvis n th urrnt n futur onomi nfits pn on th intgrity of th osystm. Culturl srvis Culturl srvis r th non- mtril nfits popl otin from osystms through sthti xprin, spiritul nrihmnt, rrtion, rfltion n ognitiv vlopmnt (MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010). 9) Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion r th plsur n inspirtion for ultur, rt n sign orl rfs provi to popl (Morg n Folk, 1999; Elmqvist t l., 2010), riv from sni viws of orl rf ssps n proximity to opn sp [9]. Most rsintil n rrtionl rs on Bonir r long th ost with sni viws of th tropil lr lu wtr n th isln of Klin Bonir. Th mor xpnsiv proprtis n tourist rsorts typilly hv irt n opn ss to th s. Thr r numr of rt gllris on Bonir tht sll lol rt n hnirfts inspir y th orl rfs n rf fish (prsonl osrvtion). 10) Support of tourism n rrtion y orl rfs (Morg n Folk, 1999) inlus ioivrsity- s tourism n rrtion suh s iving, snorklling n fishing n othr wtr- s tivitis inlu kyking, kit surfing, winsurfing, n swimming off hs (Drot t l., 2010). This srvi is vint in Bonir, whr th privt stor is sussfully mrkting th isln s tourist stintion (Dixon t l., 1993), th [1] n is rogniz s suh y multipl wrs from ivrs n iving mgzins [10]. Div tourism gn in 1963 n grw to twn n visiting ivrs in 2000 n 2008 rsptivly, whih is on vrg 60% of totl tourism on Bonir (TCB, 2009). Surfing is lso populr for tourism n rrtion, u to th prviling strly tr wins omin with th lm n shl wtr in L By. Although L By is lot on th rough winwr ost, th rrir rf in front of L provis prottion from th wvs. 11) Support of ulturl intity rfrs to lss tngil n oftn forgottn ulturl vlus tht popl riv from orl rfs (Morg n Folk, 1999) suh s soil rltions tht r influn y th prsn of fishing soity, sns of pl of th ommunity whih is ssoit with rogniz fturs of thir mrin nvironmnt suh s wtr lrity n priv lnlinss n ulturl hritg of historilly or ulturlly signifint ssps or spis (MEA, 2005) suh s th onh monumnt t th shor of L By. 12) Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis rfr to th us of rf orgnisms in monitoring n pollution rors (Morg n Folk, 1999). Corl rfs provi opportunitis for forml n informl ution, ognitiv vlopmnt n knowlg xhng through wrnss mpigns, utionl progrms n sintifi rsrh (MEA, 2005). On Bonir ths srvis r rri out y STCB, CIEE, BNMP n inpnnt, visiting rsrhrs. 31

32 3.2.2 Intifition of osystm funtions Eosystm funtions tht unrpin th intifi osystm srvis wr intifi n tgoriz foling th TEEB lssifition into proution, rgultion, hitt n informtion funtions (D Groot t l., 2010) s shown in tl 3. Tl 3. Corl rf osystm funtions tht provi osystm srvis. ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS Proution funtions 1 Primry proution 2 Sonry proution 3 Trtiry n r proution 4 Constrution of rf frmwork 5 Gnrtion of orl sn n simnt Rgultion funtions 6 Moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns 7 Rmovl or rkown of xss or xni nutrints n ompouns 8 Nutrint yling 9 Trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity Hitt funtions 10 Provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts 11 Physil n iologil support through 'moil links' Informtion funtions 12 Ssp 13 Bioivrsity Th min litrtur us to intify funtions wr Don t l. (1996), Costnz (1997), D Groot t l. (2002) n Hrorn t l. (2006). Th fous ws on funtions tht r ssntil for th livry of intifi srvis. Srvi livry is pnnt on vrity of omplx n ynmi intrtions twn spis within orl rf osystm n twn intronnt osystms (Morg n Folk, 1999). This ologil omplxity of struturs n prosss n trnslt into mor limit numr of osystm funtions ( Groot t l., 2002). Givn this ologil omplxity it ws impossil within th ontxt n timfrm of this rsrh to inlu ll funtions, so th fous ws on funtions tht hv unrlying prosss n struturs with msurl initors. Th thirtn intifi funtions of orl rfs osystms s list in tl 3 r sri. Inlu in th sription r ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs tht trmin ths osystm funtions. Proution funtions At th sis of th proution funtion is ron fixtion through photosynthsis, whih prous ompouns tht fol ithr ioonstrutionl or trophi pthwy s sri y Don t l. (1996). Th ioonstrutionl pthwy rfrs to th umultion of lium ront uiling loks, th mnts whih in thm into rf frmwork, th simnts from physil n iologil rosion of th orl rf n th sn- siz skltl lmnts of non- frmwork uiling plnts n nimls. Th trophi pthwy rfrs to th foo w, inluing th umultion of protin rsours through 32

33 plnt- hrivor- prtor links n th loss of ths rsours through tritus (Don t l., 1996). Th nt umultion of th rf frmwork in th ioonstrutionl pthwy is ssntil for th long- trm struturl intgrity of rf (Don t l., 1996). Th min omponnts of oth pthwys r sri. 1) Primry proution is t th sis of th foo hin n is importnt for th proution of fish iomss n th formtion of orl rfs. It rquirs utotrophs tht through photosynthsis onvrt nrgy, inorgni ron, wtr n nutrints into orgni ompouns ( Groot t l., 2002). Mro- lg n turf lg r importnt utotrophs on orl rfs s thy r n importnt foo sour for grzrs. For rf uiling orls prtiulr group of unillulr lg, th symioti zooxnthll, is ssntil to nhn th proution of thir lium ront. Othr primry prours r ynotri n orllin lg. Cynotri r lu- grn lg tht r importnt fixrs of nitrogn to mk nitrogn ompouns vill s ssntil nutrint for primry proution. All orllin lg ontriut lium ront to rf simnts, whih is importnt for rf onstrution n sn proution (Cstro n Hur, 2008) n is isuss s prt of osystm funtion 4 n 5. 2) Sonry proution y hrivorous fish n hrivorous invrtrts suh s s urhins through grzing of lg supports nrgy trnsfr to r trophi lvls in th foo hin whih gnrt lrgr vrity of living iomss ( Groot t l., 2002). Sonry prours hv multipl othr funtions, for whih th funtionl group of hrivors is split in iffrnt su- groups of iorors, srprs n grzrs (Bllwoo t l., 2004) lthough slightly iffrnt tgoriztion of grzing hs n ppli y othrs whih is isuss s prt of th intifition of funtionl group in hptr 4.2 (Stnk, 2001; Grn n Bllwoo, 2008; Stnk n Arnol, 2009; IUCN, 2011). Ths su- groups rflt thir omplmntry funtionl rols, sis nrgy trnsfr, to support th prosss of iorosion n grzing. Ths prosss r furthr isuss s prt of osystm funtion 5 n 9 rsptivly. Th istintion twn su- groups is lso rlvnt for th pross of omptition for rsours (Hughs t l., 2005). Comptition n onsir s n inrs of th funtionl runny, whry on spis of hrivors ompnsts for th loss of nothr spis (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Howvr, us on hrivorous spis my hv iffrnt omplmntry funtionl rol, loss of mjor spis or su- group my rsult in loss of thir funtionl rol or n unsustinl inrs of nothr su- group with unsirl fft on thir funtionl rol. An xmpl of this is lso isuss s prt of osystm funtion 5. 3) Trtiry n r proution rfrs to prtion on sonry prours n r trophi lvls y plnktivorous, omnivorous n pisivorous fish n invrtrts whih lso supports nrgy trnsfr in th foo hin (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Prtors oftn f on pry from iffrnt trophi lvls, so trtiry n r prours r tgoriz s on it omposition whry px or top prtors r pisivors with trophi lvl 4.5 or r, rnivors n omnivors hv trophi lvls twn 2.1 n 4.5 n plnktivors hv trophi lvl 3.0 (Nwmn t l., 2006). Anothr funtion of trtiry n r prours is prtion n thir funtionl rol in prtor- pry rltionships in foo w (Hughs t l., 2005), whih is furthr isuss s prt of th trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity in osystm funtion 9. 4) Constrution of rf frmwork tks pl through th pross of lifition (P), whry lifying orgnisms in ron ioxi n lium n trnsform this into lium ront whih is umult into skltons of rgonit n lit. Ths lifying orgnisms r ithr frmwork uilrs or non- frmwork uilrs (Don t l., 1996). Primry frmwork uilrs r mssiv, rnhing or plty stony orls n vrious nrusting orllin lg tht mnt th uiling loks of 33

34 stony orls into rf frmwork (Don t l., 1996; Cstro n Hur, 2008). Sonry frmwork uilrs r smllr stony orls n spis suh s ivlv molluss tht smll- sl topogrphi omplxity to th frmwork (Don t l., 1996). Non- frmwork uilrs suh s forminifr, rt orllin lg n most molluss r spis tht ontriut with thir shlls n skltl frgmnts to th rf simnt n to th frmwork itslf whn rf simnt is trpp insi th frmwork (Don t l., 1996). Soft orls n s fns o not ontriut sustntilly to rf uiling (Shppr t l., 2009). 5) Gnrtion of orl sn n simnt is th proution of rf simnts inluing orl rul, sn, silt n ly through physil n iologil prosss (Morg n Folk, 1999) whih filitts ommunitis living in th simnt (Huthings, 1986). Th lifying orgnisms tht wr lssifi ov s non- frmwork uilrs ontriut to th rf simnt through physil rosion of thir lium ront shlls n skltl frgmnts (Don t l., 1996). Biologil rosion of orl rf struturs tks pl through th prosss of grzing, thing n oring y fish, invrtrts n tri (S). This involvs oth mhnil rsion n hmil issolution. Grzrs srp liv or orl n rul from th surf whn thy rmov lg from orl rf struturs. Thry thy ryl xisting simnt n prou nw simnt tht ros th rf. Prinipl grzrs r hinois (s urhins) n vrity of fish, lss importnt grzrs r gstropos (snils). Som fish intlly ingst xisting simnt whil forging, for xmpl gotfish, othr fish suh s Anthuris (surgonfish) n Sris (prrotfish) srp th surf with thir tth n hv n limntry trt just to ingst ront n grin it into smllr prtils thry prouing nw simnt. Ehinois, suh s Dim ntillrum, grz n ro th rf y srping th sustrt to form shl prssion, ut thy xrt similr siz prtils s thy ingst. Simnt proution n lium ront issolution lso ours from oring invrtrts, suh s xvting spongs, ivlv molluss (shllfish), sipuulns (pnot worm) n polyhts (worms) suh s th Christms tr worm (Huthings, 1986). Ehinois r mor strutiv iorors thn fish, us thy urrow into th rf mtrix, whil fish minly f on orls n from onvx surfs, voiing flt n onv surfs (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Thrfor omptition twn ths two su- groups of grzrs is importnt. Ru lvls of omptition from hrivorous fish u to ovrfishing, rsult in unsustinl popultions of grzing s urhins in th Crin. This in turn rsult in mor strutiv iorosion, fol y mss mortlity of s urhins ftr spis- spifi iss outrk in th Crin in th 1980s, whih inu orl ovrgrowth y lg u to ru grzing lvls n lrg sl grtion of Crin orl rfs (Hughs, 1994; Hughs t l., 2005). Biologil rosion hs othr funtions sis th gnrtion of orl sn n simnt. It filitts mnttion tht is nssry for onstrution of th orl rf frmwork (Huthings, 1986). It lso inrss th surf omplxity n rts nwly vill sustrt for mny sntry spis inluing orls, whih is importnt to mintin spis ivrsity (Connll, 1978). Rgultion funtions Rgultion funtions rfrs to th rgultion n mintnn of ologil prosss suh s moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns, rgultion of prtory ontrol mhnisms, storg n ryling of nutrints n rmovl n rkown of xss nutrints n xni ompouns. 6) Moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns ours us orl rf struturs t s physil rrirs n moify wvs n urrnts through wv rfrtion n wv nrgy issiption (Hrorn t l., 2006). This is most ovious in lgoons to th lwr si of orl rfs with lm onitions for sgrss s n mngrovs (Morg n Rönnäk, 2003). Dt ollt from svrl Crin sstuis y Hrorn t l. (2006) show rutions in wv ts of 20-26% to 50%, wv 34

35 nrgy rution of 35-45% to 72-97%, til urrnt sps rutions of 30% up to 60-70% s til urrnts r trnsform y fritionl ffts from strong rtilinr to wk vril urrnts. Th xtnt of th moifition pns on th orl rf strutur n its topogrphi omplxity, prsns of orl spurs n simnt groovs n wtr pth s wll s on th til rng. Wtr movmnt is ltr signifintly s it fs ross th for rf, ut th rf rst lso hs vitl rol with grtst wv rking on th rf rst t ti. This funtion of rf rst zons hs n signifintly ru s rsult of th rution in rnhing Aropor orl spis (Hrorn t l., 2006). Aropor orl spis hv n svrly mg y whit- n iss in th Crin in th 1980s (Glfltr, 1982) n r u to thir growth form mor susptil to hurrin mg (Grnr t l., 2005). Unr norml onitions th nturl rkwtrs form y hlthy rf rnw t rt tht slightly xs th rt of iorosion n wv rosion (Shppr t l., 2009). Howvr, hurrins us onsirl mg to orls n ontriut to orl ovr lin. Rovry to pr- storm stt tks t lst ight yr (Grnr t l., 2005). Th loss of Aropor orl spis lso h n impt on th hitt funtion, whih is furthr isuss s prt of osystm funtion 10. 7) Rmovl or rkown of xss or xni nutrints n ompouns is th funtion of mrin osystms to ssimilt wst (Costnz t l., 1997). Exss lgl proution inu utrophition n ru through iologil filtring of suspn mtril y filtr fing orgnisms suh s ivlv molluss. This not only improvs th wtr qulity, ut lso trnsfrs proution from th plgi to th nthi foow (Ptrson n Luhno, 1997). Oil is toxifi y miros in th mrin nvironmnt y turning hyrorons into ron ioxi n wtr (Ptrson n Luhno, 1997). Mor prsistnt non- iogrl pollutnts n umult in orgnisms n simnts, thry only tmporrily immoilising n squstring ths pollutnts. Thy oftn r- ntr th nvironmnt t som point, whih movs th prolm in tim n sp (D Groot, 1992). 8) Nutrint yling rfrs to th quisition, intrnl yling n storg of nutrints suh s th ron, nitrogn, phosphorus yls of ths ssntil lmnts (Costnz t l., 1997). Phospht (PO 4 3- ) n nitrt (NO 3 - ) r rquir y plnts to synthsiz orgni mtril through photosynthsis n tn to in short supply in surf wtrs. In ll yls thr is mjor rsrvoir of th lmnt, suh s phospht rok on ln, nitrogn gs (N 2 ) in th tmosphr n ron ioxi (CO 2 ) in th ront systm (H 2 CO 3 HCO 3 - CO 3 2- ) in wtr. Cron is fix into orgni ompouns y photosynthti orgnisms. Phospht ntrs th wtr through rosion. Atmosphri N 2 must first onvrt into nitrogn ompoun for it n ntr th yl. This is on through pross ll nitrogn fixtion y tri, whry ynotri ount for ovr hlf of th of tmosphri N 2 fixtion. On in th yl, th lmnts irult through nimls n plnts y xrtion n y, ut miro- orgnisms omint th yls y mking th lmnts vill gin (Cstro n Hur, 2008). 9) Trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity is th iologil ontrol mhnisms through prtion y kyston prtors on pry spis n y top prtors on hrivors (Costnz t l., 1997). A kyston prtor is prtory spis whos fft on ommunity strutur n spis ivrsity is lrg rltiv to its unn (Cstro n Hur, 2008). Dvi (2003) suggsts to intify kyston spis within funtionl groups whos top- own fft on spis ivrsity n omptition is lrg rltiv to its iomss ominn within funtionl group. Biologil ontrol inlus rmovl of lg y mjor hrivorous fish suh s Sri (prrotfish) n y Dim ntillrum prior to th mjor i- off of this spis of s urhin in th Crin (Hughs, 1994). Biologil ontrol of nuisn spis suh s th invsiv lionfish spis in th Crin, Ptrois volitns n Ptrois mils, oul lso funtion of orl rf osystms. Howvr, prtion on lionfish is onsir rr n limit to inintl prtion y Sirrni (grouprs) n Gymnotorx funris (grn mory ls) 35

36 (Brour t l., 2011). Th isvntg of th nthropogni ontrol of this pst spis through spr fishing, ompr to iologil ontrol, is tht it is not onsir to th solution to omplt rition n sustntil rution of th ult popultion will only fsil in smll, loliz rs whr spr fishing is intns ovr multipl onsutiv yrs (Brour t l., 2011). Hitt funtions Hitt funtions r rlt to th provision of hitt n th onntivity with jnt hitts n intrpnnis twn iffrnt hitts. 10) Provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts is n importnt funtion of orl rf osystms, us th topogrphi omplxity of orl rfs provis vrity of mro- n miro- hitts. Rf- uiling orls for xmpl form primry miro- hitt for symioti zooxnthll. Topogrphi omplxity is xprss y th surf rugosity of th ontours n rvis of th rf, whih is multitu of th linr istn of tht surf r u to th vrtil rlif or t, hols, ovrhngs n th vrity of growth forms t orl rfs (Lukhurst n Lukhurst, 1978). This thr- imnsionl strutur provis sustrt n rsours to filitt lrvl sttlmnt n rruitmnt of nthi invrtrts into th ult popultion (Iji n Emuns, 2006) n it provis rfug from post- sttlmnt prtion for rf fish (Stl, 1999). Topogrphi omplxity is positivly orrlt with primry proutivity, iomss proution, spis ivrsity n unn (Lukhurst n Lukhurst, 1978; Grtwik n Spight, 2005; Grtwik n Spight, 2005). Topogrphi omplxity is lso n importnt ftor in ologil prosss, suh s wtr f roun, ovr n through th rf, wv nrgy issiption, n thry nutrint uptk (Zw t l., 2010). 11) Physil n iologil support through moil links is th funtion to support jnt osystms of orl rfs suh s sgrss s, mngrov forsts n th opn on (Morg n Folk, 1999). Th physil rrir of orl rfs hlps to rt lgoons for growth of sgrss n mngrovs (Morg n Folk, 1999; Hrorn t l., 2006). Th iologil support is through moil links of spis tht us th jnt hitts s nursry or fing grouns n in th pross trnsfr nrgy in th foo w of ths hitts n influn th nutrint yl through xrtory n fl prouts (Ogn n Glfltr, 1983). Anothr moil link is through onntivity, whih is th xtnt to whih rf is suppli with plgi propguls whih rplnish its ult popultion with fish, orl n othr nthi invrtrt lrv. Plgi lrv my trnsfr nrgy in th foo w s wll, if thy funtion s foo sour or ls thy my sttl n rruit into th popultion. But vn thn sttlmnt of orl lrv my spori n of th wrong typ, for xmpl non- frmwork uiling orl lrv in rf frmwork zon (Don, 1995). A ky lmnt in orl rf rsilin is sussful lrvl oloniztion y th full rng of orl funtionl groups hrtristi for th r (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Corl rfs lso xport orgni mtril suh s muus, plnkton n issolv orgni mttr k to th plgi foo w (Hthr, 1997). Informtion funtions Aoring to th thortil frmwork of TEEB s prsnt in figur 3 th informtion funtion rfrs to th lnsp n th informtion it provis in th rost sns. For orl rf osystms this is trnslt into th ssp n th ioivrsity within this ssp. 12) Ssp is fin in ssp ology litrtur s wholly or prtilly sumrg mrin lnsps (Pittmn t l., 2011). Th tropil ostl ssp oftn inlus intronnt osystms of orl rfs, sgrss s n mngrov forsts tht prou vrity of osystm 36

37 srvis (Morg n Rönnäk, 2003). Ssps hv th sni viws n opn sp whih trmin th sthti, rrtionl n ulturl vlu n provi rtisti inspirtion. 13) Bioivrsity within th ssp my not th typil intifir of th ulturl srvis provi y osystms, ut nvrthlss unrlis th hrtr of th ssp s priv y popl (Elmqvist t l., 2010). Although ioivrsity vris grtly mong ths srvis, ioivrsity plys n importnt rol in promoting sns of pl in most soitis n hs onsirl intrinsi ulturl vlu. Th link twn ioivrsity n rrtionl n utionl srvis is prtiulrly importnt (D Groot t l., 2010; Elmqvist t l., 2010) suh s ioivrsity- s rsrh n ution on orl rf ology n tourism n rrtion suh s iving, snorklling n fishing Rltionship twn osystm funtions n osystm srvis Th rltionship twn osystms n th nfits thy provi is oftn non- linr n omplx (Ryrs t l., 2010). Eosystm funtions n srvis o not show on on on rltionship, us singl srvi n th prout of two or mor funtions n singl funtion n ontriut to two or mor srvis (Costnz t l., 1997). Mtrix A in tl 4 visuliss ths omplx rltionships. Tl 4. Rltionship Mtrix A: osystm funtions osystm srvis. A rfrs to rltionship A in th onptul mol of this rsrh s lort in hptr 2.2 RELATIONSHIP 1 ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS Rltionships 2 = ssntil funtion for srvi livry 1 = supporting funtion to srvi livry 0 = no rltionship Rfrns 1 Morg n Folk (1999) 2 D Groot t l. (2002) 3 Bllwoo t l. (2004) 4 Don t l. (1996) 5 Costnz t l. (1997) 6 Hrorn t l. (2006) 7 TEEB (2010) Provisioning srvis 1. Sfoo prouts 1 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 1. Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt 1 1. Rw mtril for miins 1 Rgulting srvis 4. Shorlin prottion 1 5. Wst ssimiltion 1 6. Biologil mintnn of rsilin 1 Hitt srvis 7. Mintnn of hitts 1 8. Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity 1 Culturl srvis 9. Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion Support of tourism n rrtion Support of ulturl intity Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis 1 Proution funtions 1. Primry proution 2,6 2. Sonry proution 2,3,6 3. Trtiry n r proution 3,6 4. Constrution of rf frmwork 4 5. Gnrtion of orl sn 1 n simnt 1,4 Rgultion funtions 6. Moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns 5,6 7. Rmovl or rkown of xni nutrints n ompouns 2,5 8. Nutrint yling 2,5 9. Trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity 2,5 Hitt funtions 10. Provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts 2, Physil n iologil support through 'moil links' Informtion funtions 12. Ssp Bioivrsity 7 37

38 Tl 4 prsnts th rltionship twn intifi osystm funtions n osystm srvis. Th rltionship is xprss s th importn of th funtion to livr th srvi. Th shing of th lls xprsss th importn, whry rk gry = ssntil funtion, light gry = supporting funtion n no shing = no rltionship twn th funtion to livr th srvi. Supporting funtion in this ontxt ws fin s irt support to n ssntil funtion, for xmpl primry proution tht supports hrvstl fish iomss proution n provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts tht support fish iomss proution. Inirt support (support to supporting funtion) is not onsir supporting funtion, for xmpl lifition supports hitt provision whih mks it n inirt support of fish iomss proution. 3.3 Linking funtionl groups n osystm funtions Th rltionship twn funtions n funtionl groups ws xmin in thr stps s nirl in illustrtion of th t nlysis, for whih is rfrr to figur 7 in hptr 2.5 for til xplntion. First ologil prosss n iophysil struturs wr link to osystm funtions in stp 2 (Mtrix B.1). Thn funtionl groups wr link to ths prosss n struturs in stp 2 (Mtrix B.2). In stp 2 th ov two rltionships wr omin in Mtrix B, linking funtionl groups n osystm funtions. B rfrs to rltionship B in th onptul mol of this rsrh s lort in hptr 2.2. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Intifition of ologil prosss n iophysil struturs For ll osystm funtions ight ky unrlying prosss n struturs wr intifi n thir funtionl rltionships xmin s prt of stp 2 in th rltionship nlysis. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Also prosss, struturs n funtions o not show on on on rltionship, so on pross or strutur n ontriut to multipl funtions n on funtion n trmin y multipl prosss or struturs. Th stlish funtionl rltionships r shown in tl 6. Tl 6 lists th ight prosss n th multipl iophysil struturs tht prform h pross, whry th numr of th pross orrspons to th numr of th struturs, s shown in th xmpl in tl 5. Tl 5.Exmpl of ky ologil pross n orrsponing (numring of) iophysil struturs. Prosss 5 Clifition n rtion of lium ront ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND BIOPHYSICAL STRUCTURES Struturs 5.1 Primry frmwork uilrs 5.2 Sonry frmwork uilrs 5.3 Non- frmwork uilrs 38

39 Tl 6. Rltionship Mtrix B.1: Eosystm funtions Eologil prosss n struturs. RELATIONSHIP 2 Rltionships 1 = unrlying pross or strutur trmining th funtion 0 = no rltionship Rfrns 1 Morg n Folk (1999) 2 D Groot t l. (2002) 3 Bllwoo t l. (2004) 4 Don t l. (1996) 5 Costnz t l. (1997) 6 Hrorn t l. (2006) 7 TEEB (2010) Prosss 1. Photosynthsis 6 2. Grzing 6 ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND BIOPHYSICAL STRUCTURES 3. Prtion on sonry n r prours 6 4. Corl rruitmnt 6 5. Clifition 6 n rtion of lium ront 4 6. Biologil rosion 4,6 7. Wv nrgy issiption n urrnt rution n ivrsion 6 8. Nitrogn fixtion 6 Struturs 1.1. Clifition nhnrs: zooxnthll 2. Nitrogn fixrs: Cynotri 3. Clrous lg 4. Mro lg 5. Turf lg 2.1. Srping, xvting, nuing n rowsing hrivorous fish 6 2. Hrivorous invrtrts 3.1 Plnktivorous, omnivorous n pisivorous fish 6 2. Fish spis ivrsity Corl spis ivrsity Primry frmwork uilrs: stony orls, nrusting orllin lg 4 2. Sonry frmwork uilrs: smll stony orls, ivlv molluss 4 3. Non- frmwork uilrs: rt orllin lg, molluss spp Boring iorors: miro n mro invrtrts 4 2. Grzing iorors: s urhins n prrotfish 7.1. Topogrphi strutur of hitt (struturl omplxity) 8.1. Miros 1 Proution funtions 1. Primry proution 2,6 2. Sonry proution 2,3,6 3. Trtiry n r proution 3,6 4. Constrution of rf frmwork 4 5. Gnrtion of orl sn 1 n simnt 1,4 ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS Eh of th ight prosss (P) n orrsponing iophysil struturs (S) r rifly sri, inluing thir funtionl rltionship with th thirtn osystm funtions n som xmpls of th onsquns if ths prosss n struturs r istur. 1) Photosynthsis (P) y utotrophs (S) Photosynthsis is th ky pross of onvrsion of nrgy, inorgni ron, wtr n nutrints into orgni ompouns, whih rsults in primry proution s th sis of th foo w. Th iologil struturs rrying out this pross r vrious typs of utotrophs, from tri to lg, s list in tl 5. Zooxnthll, noysymioti inoglgllt lg, r spil typ of utotroph, us Rgultion funtions 6. Moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns 5,6 7. Rmovl or rkown of xni nutrints n ompouns 2,5 8. Nutrint yling 2,5 9. Trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity 2,5 Hitt funtions 10. Provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts 2, Physil n iologil support through 'moil links' Informtion funtions 12. Ssp Bioivrsity 7 39

40 thy rquir stony orls or nothr invrtrt host s primry hitt n us thy signifintly nhn lifition (Shppr t l., 2009). Corls fix four tims s muh ron n zooxnthll provi thir host with up to 95% of th orgni ron thy prou (Mustin t l., 1984) n up to 30% of thir host nitrogn rquirmnts from issolv nitrogn uptk (Bythll, 1990; Wil t l., 2011) whih oth filitt lrt orl growth, rproution n mintnn. Blh orls, us y th xpulsion of photo- pigmnt rih zooxnthll u to thrml strss of ris swtr tmprturs, show ru lifition up to 22-37% of norml growth rts (Lr t l., 1991; Wil t l., 2011) n r orl tissu rgnrtion rts of mg orls (Mstrs n Bk, 1993). This illustrts th importn of zooxnthll in th lifition pross n in th nutrint yl. Mro- lg pths lso provi rfug n nursry hitt. 2) Grzing (P) y hrivorous fish n invrtrts (S) Grzing is th ky pross of xvting, srping, ropping, nuing n rowsing of turf n mro- lg whih hs ritil funtions in orl rf osystms suh s th onvrsion of primry proution to fish- s trophi pthwys, th provision of suitl sustrt for sttlmnt of orl lrv n orl rruitmnt n th mition of omptition twn mro- lg n orls y ruing orl ovrgrowth n light rution y mro- lg (Mumy t l., 2006). Th iologil struturs rrying out this pross r hrivorous fish n hrivorous invrtrts. Th loss of prinipl hrivorous fish, suh s prrotfish n surgonfish, u to ovrfishing n of prinipl hrivorous invrtrts, suh s s urhins, u to iss us wispr lgl looms n phs shifts from orl- omint to lgl- omint osystms (Bllwoo n Hughs, 2001). 3) Prtion (P) y ivrsity of fish spis inluing pisivors, omnivors n plnktivors (S) Prtion is ky pross to trnsfr nrgy to r lvls in th trophi pthwy for sonry n r proution (Don t l., 1996). Kyston n px prtors lso hv funtionl rol in prtor- pry rltionships in foo w (Costnz t l., 1997; Hughs t l., 2005). Ovrxploittion of rf fishris first plts lrg prtors, suh s grouprs, n thr is vin tht this rsults in top- own ltrtions of th foo w. This is spilly tru in lss spis ivrs iorgions suh s th Crin, whr r funtionl runny n rspons ivrsity my rsult in grtr impt from loss of prtors (Bllwoo t l., 2004). For xmpl th nsitis of s urhins on ovrfish rfs prior to thir mjor i- off us y pthogn, ws lmost rtinly u to loss of prtors on s urhins omin with ru omptition for rsours from loss of hrivorous fish (Hughs, 1994). 4) Corl rruitmnt (P) y ivrsity of orl spis (S) Corl rruitmnt is th ky pross of lrvl oloniztion into th ult popultion y th full rng of orl spis n funtionl groups hrtristi for th iorgion. This is importnt to mintin hlthy, ivrs orl rf n to rsist phs shifts to lss sirl, gr stts (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Sussful rruitmnt pns on four mjor ftors: phototti hviour of th lrv, rproutiv ssonlity, sustrt vilility, n survivl unr prssurs of prtion n omptition (Hrorn t l., 2006). But vn thn sttlmnt of orl lrv my spori n of th wrong typ, for xmpl non- frmwork uiling orl lrv tht sttl in rf frmwork zon (Don, 1995). Sussful rruitmnt is n xmpl of onntivity n n. 5) Clifition n rtion of lium ront (P) y frmwork n non- frmwork uilrs (S) Clifition is th ky pross of rtion of lium ront y frmwork n non- frmwork uilrs to onvrt primry proution into th ioonstrutionl pthwy. Th nt umultion of th rf frmwork in th ioontrutionl pthwy is ssntil for th struturl intgrity of orl rf 40

41 (Don t l., 1996). Nt umultion is th sum of gross rtion of lium ront minus iorosion of lium ront struturs, whih is isuss s prt of th nxt ky pross. Primry frmwork uilrs r mssiv, rnhing n plty stony orls n nrusting orllin lg tht mnt th stony orls into frmwork n rt struturl omplxity. Sonry frmwork uilrs r smllr stony orls n spis suh s ivlv molluss tht smll- sl struturl omplxity (Don t l., 1996). Struturl omplxity is importnt for th provision of hitts n for wv nrgy issiption (Zw t l., 2010). Non- frmwork uilrs r rt orllin lg n othr lifying orgnisms tht hv minor ontriution to th frmwork, whn rf simnt ompos of thir shlls n skltl frgmnts is trpp insi th frmwork (Don t l., 1996). Thir rol into gnrtion of rf simnt is mor importnt. Clifition is lso n importnt pross to rt th typil orl rf ssp with lr lu wtr ov sny sustrts omin with rk lu pths ov orl sustrt. 6) Biologil rosion of lium ront struturs (P) y oring n grzing iorors (S) Biorosion is th ky pross of iologil rosion of orl rf struturs(p) y xvting n srping hrivorous fish n miro- n mro- invrtrts (S) suh s hinois, ivlv molluss, polyht worms, nrusting or oring spongs n filmntous lg tht or into th rf or grz th lg y srping th surf (Huthings, 1986). Grzrs suh s xvting n srping prrotfish n srping n oring s urhins r ky iorors. As long s s urhin unn is it n to topogrphi omplxity, ut it n ro th rf to rul n sn t too unn (Don t l., 1996). Th funtion of iorosion is gnrtion of orl sn n rf simnt, whih provis hitt n givs th tropil lr lu wtr olour to th orl rf ssp. 7) Wv nrgy issiption (P) y topogrphi omplx struturs (S) Th ky prosss of wv rfrtion n wv nrgy issiption n urrnt rution n ivrsion r importnt to moify wv n urrnt pttrns. Th rf frmwork is th physil strutur tht provis this nturl rkwtr n rrir to support rtion n prottion of jnt hitts. Th xtnt of moifition pns mongst othrs on topogrphi omplxity of th rf frmwork. In th Crin two mjor shl- wtr hitts hv lrgly isppr, plmt rviornis. Espilly lkhorn orl is struturlly omplx n hs mny lrg rnhs, whih hs ritil funtion in hitt provision n wv nrgy issiption (Bllwoo t l., 2004). Simnt position is nothr funtion of wv nrgy issiption (Hrorn, 2006). 8) Nitrogn fixtion (P) y miros n ynotri (S) Nitrogn fixtion is ky pross to onvrt tmosphri N 2 from th nitrogn rsrvoir into nitrogn ompoun so it n ntr th nitrogn yl. Othr rsrvoirs of ssntil lmnts for primry proution, suh s ron n phosphorus, r ithr vill in swtr or ntr th wtr through rosion. Th most importnt iophysil struturs for nitrogn fixtion r ynotri Intifition of funtionl groups For ll ologil prosss n struturs ruil funtionl groups wr intifi n thir funtionl rols to support ths prosss n struturs xmin s prt of stp 2 in th rltionship nlysis. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis 41

42 Tl 7 shows th funtionl groups n othr initors intifi for thir funtionl rol in th ight ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs. Tl 7. Rltionship Mtrix B.2: Eologil prosss n struturs Funtionl groups. RELATIONSHIP 2 Rltionships 1 = funtionl group s initor for pross or strutur 0 = no rltionship Rfrns 1 Morg n Folk (1999) 2 D Groot t l. (2002) 3 Bllwoo t l. (2004) 4 Don t l. (1996) 5 Costnz t l. (1997) 6 Hrorn t l. (2006) 7 TEEB (2010) ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND BIOPHYSICAL STRUCTURES Prosss 1. Photosynthsis 6 2. Grzing 6 3. Prtion on sonry n r prours 6 4. Corl rruitmnt 6 5. Clifition 6 n rtion of lium ront 4 6. Biologil rosion 4,6 7. Wv nrgy issiption n urrnt rution n ivrsion 6 8. Nitrogn fixtion 6 Struturs 1.1. Clifition nhnrs: zooxnthll 2. Nitrogn fixrs: Cynotri 3. Clrous lg 4. Mro lg 5. Turf lg 2.1. Srping, xvting, nuing n rowsing hrivorous fish 6 2. Hrivorous invrtrts 3.1 Plnktivorous, omnivorous n pisivorous fish 6 2. Fish spis ivrsity Corl spis ivrsity Primry frmwork uilrs: stony orls, nrusting orllin lg 4 2. Sonry frmwork uilrs: smll stony orls, ivlv molluss 4 3. Non- frmwork uilrs: rt orllin lg, molluss spp Boring iorors: miro n mro invrtrts 4 2. Grzing iorors: s urhins n prrotfish 7.1. Topogrphi strutur of hitt (struturl omplxity) 8.1. Miros 1 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND INDICATORS for funtionl vlu of hitts to support ESP, ESF n ESS 1.1 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - srprs, xvtors (proxy) 1.2 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - nurs (proxy) 1.3 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - rowsrs (proxy) Funtionl groups n hv iffrnt n omplmntry rols (Bllwoo t l., 2004), so on funtionl group oul us s initor for multipl prosss. For xmpl xvting n srping hrivorous fish not only hv funtionl rol in grzing lg, ut lso in iorosion of th rf frmwork n in hitt provision y xposing th rf for lrvl sttlmnt (Bllwoo t l., 2004). On pross n lso hv multipl initors, for xmpl iorosion n stimt s on th prsn of prinipl iorors, suh s s urhins n prrotfish, or prsn of ront simnt, sn n rul. Dirt msurmnts of prosss r not lwys possil, ut funtionl groups n provi usful proxis (Hrorn t l., 2006). For xmpl, quntifition of grzing rt rquirs msurmnts of its pr minut multipli y th siz of its pr iniviul fish pr fish spis multipli y th unn pr fish spis (Fox n Bllwoo, 2007). Bus ths prmtrs wr not vill, hrivorous fish nsity ws us s proxy for grzing. 2. Dnsity plnktivorous fish 6 (proxy) 3. Dnsity omnivorous fish 6 (proxy) 4. Dnsity prtory fish 6 (proxy) 5. Fish ioivrsity 6. Fish unn 7. Fish mximum siz 8. Brnhing orl ovr 4,6 9. Mssiv orl ovr Corl Covr 11. Algl ovr (Mro/turf/lrous lg) Gorgonin, soft orl ovr 13. Spong ovr 14. Sn, rul n rok ovr 15. Corl ioivrsity 6 16.Corl mximum siz 17. Struturl omplxity 18. Corl mortlity, iss n lhing 19. Corl it mrks 20. Cynotri Triimnum solium (tunit) 22. Dim ntillrum (s urhin) 6 42

43 For som prosss n struturs no initors wr intifi, us of th hoi of visul nsus thniqu. For xmpl smpling of orl rruits is normlly on using 1 m 2 qurnts n su to los to th sustrt. Hn orl rruitmnt ws not msur, nor wr svrl struturs suh s smll or rypti spis: miros, nrusting n rt orllin lg, turf lg, filmntous lg, miro- n most mro- invrtrts inluing molluss, polyht worms, oring or nrusting spongs. For nitrogn fixtion only wk initor ws intifi, nmly visil ynotri mts. For som funtionl groups thr ws n ovious rltionship with on or mor intifi struturs, us th struturs lry inlu groups of spis s on thir funtionl rol. For xmpl, fish funtionl groups wr intifi s on thir funtionl rol to trnsfr nrgy in th trophi pthwy, n tgoriz oring to thir trophi guil in hrivors, plnktivors, omnivors n pisivors. Hrivors wr, s on thir funtionl rol in othr osystm prosss, tgoriz in th funtionl groups of xvting n srping hrivors, nuing hrivors n frming hrivors. How prisly this lssifition is uil up is xplin in mor til in hptr 4.2. For othr funtionl groups n initors thr ws not lr rltionship with on or mor of th intifi prosss, struturs or funtions. Thy wr inlu in th snorkl survy, us thy r ommon prmtrs to inlu in orl rf survy. For xmpl fish mximum siz of lrg pisivors (grouprs, snpprs n jks) is n initor of orl rf osystm hlth s lrg fish r mor proutiv, so th st ws to link this initor with trtiry n r proution n with trophi- ynmi rgultion y ths px prtors. Rul, sn n rok ovr is n initor of orl rf hlth s wll, n it ws us s proxy for th pross of iorosion for gnrtion of sn n simnt n oul ngtivly link to th provision of hitt n moifition of wvs n urrnts. Corl mortlity, iss n lhing wr lso inlu s initors of orl rf hlth, ut th wk link with futur iorosion ws not inlu, nor ws th ngtiv link with th prosss of lifition n photosynthsis u to lk of zooxnthll. Spong ovr is ommon spis to inlu in nthi survys, ut thir funtionl rol in rmovl of xss nutrints n nutrint yling ws not xmin in this rsrh. Gorgonin ovr ws inlu s nothr ommon spis, ut thir funtionl rol ws lso not furthr xmin. Triimnum solium, tunit, is nuisn spis n ws inlu s initor for th thrt of invsiv spis, so thir funtionl rol ws irrlvnt. Lionfish ws lso inlu s initor for invsiv spis thrt Rltionship twn funtionl groups n osystm funtions All funtionl groups wr link to osystm funtions s on thir funtionl rols to support osystm funtions s prt of stp 2 in th rltionship nlysis. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis Rltionships wr stlish y onsoliting th rsults from tl 6 (rltionship 2) n tl 7 (rltionship 2) into on mtrix, whry prosss n struturs wr us s intrmit stp to fin th link twn funtionl groups n th funtions thy support. For xmpl, th funtionl group xvting hrivorous fish ws intifi s n initor for prosss grzing n iorosion in tl 7. Looking t tl 6 th grzing pross trmins th funtions 2) sonry proution 9) trophi ynmi rgultion n 11) moil links. Th iorosion pross trmins th funtions 5) 43

44 gnrtion of orl sn n simnt, 10) provision of hitt n 12) ssp. This nlysis ws on for h intifi funtionl group n rsult in Mtrix B s prsnt in tl 8. Tl 8. Rltionship Mtrix B: Funtionl groups Eosystm funtions. B rfrs to rltionship B in th onptul mol of this rsrh s lort in hptr 2. RELATIONSHIP 2 ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS Rltionships 1 = funtionl group s initor for qulity of osystm funtions 0 = no rltionship Rfrns 1 Morg n Folk (1999) 2 D Groot t l. (2002) 3 Bllwoo t l. (2004) 4 Don t l. (1996) 5 Costnz t l. (1997) 6 Hrorn t l. (2006) 7 TEEB (2010) FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND OTHER INDICATORS 1.1 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - srprs, xvtors (proxy) 1.2 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - nurs (proxy) 1.3 Dnsity hrivorous fish 6 - rowsrs (proxy) 2. Dnsity plnktivorous fish 6 (proxy) 3. Dnsity omnivorous fish 6 (proxy) 4. Dnsity prtory fish 6 (proxy) 5. Fish ioivrsity 6. Fish unn 7. Fish mximum siz 8. Brnhing orl ovr 4,6 9. Mssiv orl ovr Corl Covr 11. Algl ovr (Mro/turf/lrous lg) Gorgonin, soft orl ovr 13. Spong ovr 14. Sn, rul n rok ovr 15. Corl ioivrsity 6 16.Corl mximum siz 17. Struturl omplxity 18. Corl mortlity, iss n lhing 19. Corl it mrks 20. Cynotri Triimnum solium (tunit) 22. Dim ntillrum (s urhin) 6 Proution funtions 1. Primry proution 2,6 2. Sonry proution 2,3,6 3. Trtiry n r proution 3,6 4. Constrution of rf frmwork 4 5. Gnrtion of orl sn 1 n simnt 1,4 Rgultion funtions 6. Moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns 5,6 7. Rmovl or rkown of xni nutrints n ompouns 2,5 8. Nutrint yling 2,5 9. Trophi- ynmi rgultion of spis ivrsity 2,5 Hitt funtions 10. Provision of rfug, nursry n rproution hitts 2, Physil n iologil support through 'moil links' Informtion funtions 12. Ssp Bioivrsity 7 44

45 4 RESULTS SNORKEL SURVEY In this hptr th rsults from th nlysis of primry t ollt with th snorkl survy r groups. This nlysis ws prt of stp 3 in th funtionl vlu nlysis s illustrt n xplin in figur 7 in hptr 2.5. Chptr 4.1 xplins how mrin n ostl rsour usr groups wr intifi to lustr t n xmin orrltions twn funtionl groups n rsour us. Chptr 4.2 lorts on th nlysis of fish funtionl groups n hptr 4.3 on th nlysis of orl funtionl groups. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis 4.1 Mrin n ostl rsour us t survy lotions As xplin in hptr two orl rf hitts wr slt: th shl zon n th rf zon. Ths two hitts wr survy t 116 lotions on Bonir n Klin Bonir, with ID numrs B00- B96 n KB00- KB20 rsptivly. Coupling th two hitts n 116 lotions rsult in 232 tsts. Bus multivrit sttistil nlysis to lustr lotions oring to similritis in rprsnttion of funtionl groups i not rsult in signifint lustrs, lotions wr ompr oring to iffrns in rprsnttion of funtionl groups s on prfin groups in Kruskl Wllis non- prmtri tsts. For xmpl, t ollt from trnsts in rsintil rs wr ompr to thos in mrin rsrvs, to nlyz whthr sttistil signifint iffrns twn groups wr osrv. Lotions wr ivi in 7 groups s prsnt in tl 9, s on iffrnt ostl n mrin rsour us. Tl 9. Group ivision of snorkl sits into mrin n ostl rsour us groups. Costl rsour us inlus ostl vlopmnt for rsintil n inustril us. Mrin rsour us inlus th rstrit us rs of th Mrin n Fish rsrv, th frquntly us, sy ss rs y iv tourism n th lst us rs lik th uninhit isln of Klin Bonir n rmot, iffiult to ss rs. Rsour us Spifition Trnst ID 1. Rsintil Blnm (inluing Donky h B30- B32) B26 B32 Krlnijk (xluing ovrlpping Fish Rsrv B34- B35) B36 B39 Hto (xluing ovrlpping Fish Rsrv B43- B44) B45 B45 So B46 B50 2. Inustril Bop oil storg trminl B66 B69 Crgill orportion slt proution B16 B19 3. Div tourism Div sits north B51 B61 Div sits south (inluing Pink h B14) B04 B15, B20 B25 4. Mrin Rsrvs Krpt Gotomr B62 B65 Bok Slgi Ply Frns B79 B83 5. Fish Rsrvs Ply Chhh Plz Rsort B33 B35 Hrour Villg Bh Rsort B40 B44 6. Rmot South B00 B03 North (inluing Ply Frns B78, Bok Slgi B84- B85, B70 B78, B84 B96 Ply Funhi B88, Ply Bng B90, Bok Brtol B94) 7. Isln Klin Bonir KB00 KB20 45

46 Costl rsour us groups wr ivi in intnsivly us ostl rs with rsintil n inustril vlopmnt n uninhit osts of Klin Bonir n rmot rs. On Klin Bonir ostl n mrin rsours us is limit to som tourism n rrtion through ot iving trips n h y- trips. Rmotnss ws fin s iffiult ss from shor, ithr u to wvs in th south n liffs in th north, n long ot riving istn from Krlnijk. Mrin rsour us groups wr ivi oring to th zontion of th MPA in Mrin n Fish rsrvs. Mrin rsrvs, stlish from th strt of th stlishmnt of th MPA in 1979 (STINAPA, 2006), o not l ny rsour us, inluing iving, snorklling, surfing, fishing, nhoring n mooring, with th xption of fishris with tritionl fishing gr (Bonir, 2010). Fish rsrvs, stlish in 2008 (Bonir, 2007), o not l ny fishing, xpt on invsiv lionfish spis Ptrois spp. (Bonir, 2010; Bonir, 2010). Othr intifi mrin rsour us groups wr tourism n rrtion. Th group tourism inlu only sy ss iv sits, lthough iving is possil vrywhr xpt in th mrin rsrv. Rrtion ws not inlu s sprt group, vn though rrtion t th puli hs Pink h, Donky h, Ply Frns, Bok Slgi, Ply Funhi, Ply Bng n Bok Brtol is n importnt rsour us. Rson ws tht ths hs r sttr long th lwr ost of Bonir n thrfor not likly to form uniform group. In ition, survy sits wr not lwys xtly in front of h smllr in siz n thrfor not n urt msurmnt. 4.2 Funtionl vlu nlysis of fish funtionl groups As xplin in hptr funtionl vlu is fin s th importn of hitt to n ologil funtion. Th importn is msur s th rprsnttion of fish n orl funtionl groups in h hitt lotion t n orinl sl, s on fish unn n ourrn n nthi ovr. Fish funtionl groups inlu in th survy n thir funtionl rols r lort in hptr Lvls st for th orinl sling r xplin in hptr 4.2.2, s wll s th rsulting mtrix C showing for h funtionl group th funtionl vlu t h hitt lotion n th rsulting mps of funtionl vlus on sptil sl. In hptr th rsults of th non- prmtri Kruskl Wllis tsts on group iffrns twn rsour us groups in th rprsnttion of fish funtionl groups r prsnt Fish funtionl groups n funtionl rols Th 89 fish spis inlu in th survy wr slt s on th funtionl groups intifi in hptr n s on spis ourrn on Bonir. Spis ourrn ws trmin y tking spis inlu in othr survys on Bonir, suh s y Stnk n Arnol (2009) n IUCN (2011). For n ovrviw of fish spis inlu in th survy is rfrr to ppnix B. A summry of th fmilis inlu in th fish funtionl groups is givn in tl 10. Tl 10. Fish fmilis inlu in fish funtionl groups n othr initors of osystm funtioning. FISH FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND OTHER INDICATORS 1.1 Esvting n srping hrivors: Sri (prrotfish) 1.2 Dnuing hrivors: Anthuri (surgonfish) 1.3 Frming hrivors: Pomntri (mslfish) 2. Plnktivors: Pomntri (hromis) Omnivors: Hmuli (grunts) n Lutjni (snpprs) Pisivors: Srrni (grouprs) Crngi (jks) n 8 prtors from 7 fmilis 5. Fish ioivrsity: ov 57 spis plus 32 othr spis from 17 fmilis 6. Fish unn: ll 89 spis from 31 fmilis 7. Fish mximum siz: Srrni n lrg Lutjni n Crngi (>80m) 46

47 Th funtionl rol of th ov funtionl groups to support ky osystm funtions n sustin osystm srvis hs n lort in hptr 3 n is not furthr isuss hr. Th lssifition of hrivors in funtionl groups of xvting n srping hrivors, nuing hrivors n frming hrivors ws mntion in hptr 3, ut is xplin in mor til hr. Hrivors wr s on thir funtionl rol in othr osystm prosss, not just tgoriz s on thir trophi guil, ut lso s on thir fing rng, fing mtho n it. Hrivorous fish funtionl groups wr first lssifi s on fing rng in: Frming hrivors Roving hrivors, whih ws furthr lssifi s on thir it in: o Browsing hrivors o Grzing hrivors, whih ws furthr lssifi s on thir fing mtho in: Srping hrivors Exvting hrivors Dnuing hrivors Roving hrivors r forgrs tht f ovr lrg istns of sustrtum, suh s prrotfish, surgonfish (Crlli t l., 2011) n hus (Frrir n Gonlvs, 2006). Frming hrivors r trritoril hrivors, primrily mslfish, whih fn fing trritoris from forgrs (Crlli t l., 2011). Roving hrivors n furthr lssifi in two funtionl groups s on th lg thy t: grzrs n rowsrs (Hoy n Bllwoo, 2010). Browsrs onsistntly f on rt mro- lg (Grn n Bllwoo, 2008; Hoy n Bllwoo, 2010). Thy rmov only th lg n ssoit piphyti mtril. Thy hv n importnt funtionl rol in ruing orl ovrgrowth n shing y mro- lg (Grn n Bllwoo, 2008). Grzrs f primrily on th pilithi lgl mtrix, or turf lg (Hoy n Bllwoo, 2010), n n furthr lssifi in thr funtionl groups s on th wy thy t: srprs, xvtors n nurs (Stnk, 2001; Grn n Bllwoo, 2008). Srprs tk non- xvting its n rmov turf lg, simnt n othr loos mtril y ropping n srping th orl surf. Thir funtionl rol is limiting th stlishmnt n growth of mro- lg y rmoving turf lg n lning th sustrtum for orl lrv sttlmnt n orl rruitmnt. Thy hv minor rol in iorosion n pross only xisting n not nw simnt. Exvtors tk pr its from th orl surf n lso rmov orl. Thir funtionl rol is similr to srprs, ut in ition thy hv mjor rol in iorosion (Grn n Bllwoo, 2008). Dnurs o not it into orl struturs n just rmov turf lg, so thy o not hv funtionl rol in iorosion n in orl rruitmnt y lning th sustrtum (Stnk, 2001), ut thy o ru orl ovrgrowth n shing y mro- lg (Grn n Bllwoo, 2008) Orinl sling n mpping of fish funtionl vlus in survy lotions Orinl sling of th stnriz tst of numrs of fish pr 100 m 2 for h funtionl group ws on to ssign smi- quntittiv orinl sl lvls to h funtionl group t h survy lotion. Th orinl sl for fish funtionl groups ontin four lvls: 3=, 2=, 1= n 0=no rprsnttion. To st pproprit lvls, sonry quntittiv t wr rviw. Th stuis of Stnk n Arnol (2009) n IUCN (2011) provi th most rlvnt t, s thos stuis took pl on Bonir n inlu most spis tht wr inlu in th snorkl survy. Quntittiv t from th mt- nlysis of Hrorn t l. (2006) provi lso goo rfrn, for thos spis tht wr not inlu in stuis on Bonir. For spifition of whih rfrns wr us for th orinl sling of whih spis is rfrr to ppnix B. Aftr th orinl sling of th tst from numrs of fish pr 100m 2 to lvl 0 to 3, hk ws on if orinl sl lvls wr rlistilly st s on mor or lss qul prntg ourrn pr lvl. Ajustmnts wr m s sri in hptr 2.5.2, rsulting in th finl orinl sl lvls s shown in tl

48 Tl 11. Orinl sl lvls of fish unn in numrs of fish/100m 2. Fish mxium siz is in m n fish ioivrsity in numrs of fish. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS Low Mium High PARROTFISH - SCARIDAE SURGEONFISH - ACANTHURIDAE DAMSELFISH - POMACENTRIDAE CHROMIS - POMACENTRIDAE GRUNTS - HAEMULIDAE SNAPPERS - LUTJANIDAE GROUPERS - SERRANIDAE JACKS - CARANGIDAE OTHER SPECIES FISH MAXIMUM SIZE FISH ABUNDANCE FISH BIODIVERSITY Th rsult of th orinl sling of th fish tst is prsnt in Mtrix C.1 in ppnix E n shows fish funtionl group rprsnttion pr hitt n lotion. This mtrix ws us s input to visuliz th rprsnttion of h funtionl group on th mp of Bonir n rsult in 24 mps. Th fish ioivrsity n prrotfish unn mps r shown in figur 8 n 9 n isuss hr s n xmpl wht informtion ths mps provi. For omplt ovrviw of ll mps is rfrr to ppnix F, us th mps hv not n nlyz on n iniviul sis in til s thy wr n intrmit stp in th funtionl vlu nlysis of th importn of hitts for osystm srvis. FG5 Fish ioivrsity - Shl zon FG5 Fish ioivrsity - Rf zon non non Figur 8. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts msur y th lvl of rprsnttion of ioivrsity of fish spis (FG5 rfrs to Funtionl Group initor numr 5 s list in tl 10). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. Figur 8 shows tht rtin hitts n lotions provi r lvls of ioivrsity of fish spis thn othrs. In th shl zon th rmot north n south n th prts of Klin Bonir furthst 48

49 wy from th minln hv r ioivrsity, in th rf zon th mrin rsrvs (ll ) hv rmrkly r ioivrsity. Th rsintil r (ll ) still hv to ioivrsity whih oul xplin y th prsn of pirs n th shltr this provis for lrg shools of fish. Th fish rsrvs (ll ) o not sm to vry iffrnt from th jnt lotions. FG1.1 Sri - Shl zon FG1.1 Sri - Rf zon non non Figur 9. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts msur y th lvl of rprsnttion of prrotfish, th funtionl group of svting n srping hrivors (FG1.1 rfrs to Funtionl Group initor numr 1.1 s list in tl 10). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. Figur 9 shows tht in th shl zon th unn of prrotfish is st in or nr th mrin rsrvs (ll ) n in front of So (ll ). In th rf zon thr r rmrkly vlus ll long th south- wstrn ost Diffrns in fish funtionl vlus twn rsour us groups Th fish funtionl vlu mps show mny iffrnt pttrns of, n funtionl vlus for h funtionl group. Th lls on th mp hlp to visuliz whr th iffrnt mrin n ostl rsour us groups r lot tht n xplin som of ths iffrnt pttrns. In ition, sttistil nlyss wr prform to xmin similritis n iffrns twn lotions. Th multivrit nlyss us wr lustr nrogrms n multi imnsionl sling, ut oth i not rsult in lustrs of lotions with similr funtionl vlus for ll funtionl groups omin. Thrfor group iffrn nlysis ws rri to xmin if th prfin rsour us groups s intifi in hptr 4.1 xplin th iffrns twn lotions. Th sttistil tsts us wr th non- prmtri Kruskl Wllis tst omin with multipl omprisons tst. In figur 10 two of ths tsts r shown s xmpl, whil for th omplt st of tsts is rfrr to ppnix G for group iffrns in th shl zon n to ppnix H for group iffrns in th rf zon. Figur 10 A n B prsnt signifint iffrns twn rsour us groups rlt to fish ioivrsity in th rf zon n figur 10 C n D prsnt signifint iffrns rlt to prrotfish unn in th shl zon. Ths two xmpls wr hosn, us thy show signifint iffrns n us ths sttistil tsts unrpin th visul ssssmnt of iffrns in th funtionl vlu mps for fish ioivrsity (figur 8) n prrotfish (figur 9). 49

50 (A) Fish Bioivrsity (# spp.): KW- H(7;116)=26,6393; p=0,0004 (C) Prrotfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW- H(7;116)=23,986; p=0,0011 (B) Fish Bioivrsity multipl omprisons tst Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Bioivrsity (# of spis) (DfinitifFishCorlDtDpShl2) Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =26,63930 p =,0004 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Bioivrsity (# of spis) R:98,333 R:41,375 R:72,381 R:45,962 R:59,339 R:44,794 R:81,000 R:47,250 Rsrv 0, , , , , , , FPA 0, , , , , , , Isln 1, , , , , , , Rmot 0, , , , , , , Div 0, , , , , , , Town 0, , , , , , , BOPEC 1, , , , , , , SALT 0, , , , , , , (D) Prrotfish unn multipl omprisons tst Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Prrotfish Aunn (100 ) (DfinitifFishCorlDtDpShl2) m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =23,98603 p =,0011 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Prrotfish Aunn (100 2 m) R:89,056 R:61,313 R:60,810 R:71,135 R:48,250 R:41,853 R:75,000 R:20,000 Rsrv 1, , , , , , , FPA 1, , , , , , , Isln 0, , , , , , , Rmot 1, , , , , , , Div 0, , , , , , , Town 0, , , , , , , BOPEC 1, , , , , , , SALT 0, , , , , , , Figur 10. Group iffrn nlysis of funtionl groups Fish Bioivrsity (FG5) in th rf zon hitts n Prrotfish Aunn (FG1.1) in th shl zon hitts. Grph (A) shows oxplot with min vlus of th ight prfin rsour us groups. Th Kruskl Wllis tst shows thr is signifint iffrn (p=0.0004) twn groups, with smpl siz N=116 n f=7. Tl (B) shows th orrsponing Multipl Comprisons tst with light in r signifint iffrns twn Mrin rsrvs ompr to Fish rsrvs (FPA), Rmot r n Rsintil r (Town). Grph (C) shows oxplot with min vlus of th ight prfin rsour us groups. Th Kruskl Wllis tst shows thr is signifint iffrn (p=0.0011) twn groups, with smpl siz N=116 n f=7. Tl (D) shows th orrsponing Multipl Comprisons tst with light in r th signifint iffrns twn Mrin rsrvs ompr to Div tourism r (Div), Rsintil r (Town) n Inustril slt proution r (Slt). 50

51 Unfortuntly most of th othr group iffrn tsts in ppnix G n H i not rsult in signifint iffrns, only surgonfish n mslfish in oth th shl n th p zon i. Appnix G shows signifint iffrn in surgonfish unn in th shl zon of Klin Bonir n rmot r n in mslfish unn in th shl zon of Klin Bonir ompr to iv tourism r, rsintil r n inustril slt proution r. Appnix H shows signifint iffrn in surgonfish unn in th rf zon of th mrin rsrvs n iv tourism r n in mslfish unn in th rf zon of Klin Bonir ompr to rmot r. 4.3 Funtionl vlu nlysis of orl n othr nthi funtionl groups Similr s for fish, funtionl groups of orls n othr nthos inlu in th survy r lort in hptr Lvls st for th orinl sling r xplin in hptr 4.2.2, s wll s th rsulting mtrix D showing for h funtionl group th funtionl vlu t h hitt lotion n th rsulting mps of funtionl vlus on sptil sl Corl n othr nthi funtionl groups n funtionl rols Th nthi omposition inluing orl spis n othr sustrt ovr, wr slt s on thir funtionl rol s intifi in hptr An ovrviw of th spis within funtionl groups n othr initors is givn in tl 12. Tl 12. Bnthi spis inlu in nthi funtionl groups n othr initors of osystm funtioning. CORAL FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND OTHER INDICATORS Brnhing orl ovr: Aropor plmt (lkhorn), Aropor rviornis (stghorn) Mssiv orl ovr: Montstr nnulris, Montstr fvolt 10. Corl Covr 11. Mro lgl ovr 12. Gorgonin n othr soft orl ovr 13. Spong ovr Sn, orl rul n rok ovr 15. Corl ioivrsity 16. Corl mximum siz 17. Struturl omplxity Corl mortlity n lhing 19. Corl it mrks from prrotfish 20. Cynotri 21. Triimnum solium (tunit) 22. Dim ntillrum (s urhin) Funtionl group 21 n 22 wr omitt from th nlysis, us nuisn tunit spis Triimnum solium n grzing n ioroing s urhin spis Dim ntillrum wr only prsnt t vry fw lotions Orinl sling n mpping of nthi funtionl vlus in survy lotions Orinl sling of prntg ovr of nthi funtionl groups ws on to ssign smi- quntittiv orinl sl lvls to h funtionl group t h survy lotion. Th orinl sl for nthi funtionl groups ontin fiv lvls: 4=, 3=, 2=, 1=prsnt n 0=no rprsnttion. 51

52 This ws on lvl mor thn for fish, to nl ssigning lvl 1 or prsnt to vry ovr of lss thn on prnt. Th rsult ftr orinl sling of th nthi tst is prsnt in Mtrix C.2 in ppnix E n shows nthi funtionl group rprsnttion pr hitt n lotion. This mtrix ws us s input to visuliz th rprsnttion of h funtionl group on th mp of Bonir n rsult in 36 mps for whih is rfrr to ppnix I. Som mps of ruil funtionl groups for ostl prottion, hitt provisioning n th long- trm struturl intgrity of th orl rf r isuss hr n prsnt in figur 11, 12 n 13. FG17 Topogrphi Complxity - Shl zon FG17 Topogrphi Complxity - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt Figur 11. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts msur y th lvl of struturl omplxity of th sustrt (FG17 rfrs to Funtionl Group initor numr 17 in tl 12). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. FG10 Corl ovr - Shl zon FG10 Corl ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt Figur 12. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts msur y th lvl of orl ovr (FG10 rfrs to Funtionl Group initor numr 10 in tl 12). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. 52

53 FG8.1 Aropor plmt - Shl zon FG8.2 Aropor rviornis - Shl zon non prsnt non prsnt Figur 13. Funtionl vlu mps of shl hitts msur y th lvl of rnhing Aropor spp. (FG8.1 n FG8.2 rfrs to Funtionl Group initor numrs 8.1 n 8.2 in tl 12). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. Th topogrphi omplxity s prsnt in figur 11 is vry to non- xisting in th shl zon hitts in th south- wstrn ost of Bonir n Klin Bonir n slightly r t th mrin rsrvs n on of th fish rsrvs. This orrspons with figur 12, showing orl ovr in th shl zon in th mrin rsrvs n th vry to non- xisting orl ovr in th shl zon in th south- wstrn ostlin. Ths shl zons r hrtriz y sn ovr (s FG14.1 in ppnix I). As figur 13 shows, th orl ovr in th shl zon in on of th mrin rsrvs n prts of Klin Bonir is prtilly xplin y th prsn of Aropor spp. s wll s Montstr nnulris (s FG9.1 in ppnix I). Figur 13 lso shows tht Aropor plmt n to lssr xtnt lso Aropor rviornis show som rovry in th fr south n fr north. Aropor spp. ovr in th rf zon is virtully non- xistnt s it is typil shl- wtr spis n thrfor not shown hr. 53

54 5 RESULTS FUNCTIONAL VALUE ANALYSIS In this hptr th rsults from th snorkl survy s prsnt in Mtris C.1 n C.2 r omin with rltionship Mtris A n B from hptr 3 to funtionl vlu of orl rfs on Bonir to osystm srvis, msur s th rprsnttion of ruil funtionl groups tht support ky ologil prosss n iophysil struturs tht provi. This is th lst stp in th funtionl vlu nlysis s illustrt n xplin in figur 7 in hptr 2.5. ESF ESF FGr ESF H H ESS P&S P&S FGr FGr ESS (1) (2) (2) (2) (3) (3) Rltionship nlysis Funtionl vlu nlysis 5.1 Funtionl vlu of hitts n lotions to livr osystm srvis In th lst stp of th funtionl vlu nlysis h osystm srvi ws link to on or mor funtionl groups tht unrpin th provision of tht srvi. Thn for h hitt n lotion funtionl vlu ws lult s on th sum of funtionl vlus of slt funtionl groups. Aftr numril funtionl vlus wr trnsform into smi- quntittiv orinl sl, ths smi- quntittiv funtionl vlus of 116 lotions in two orl rf hitts wr mpp to visulis how h lotion supports th livry of th twlv osystm srvis Assigning funtionl vlus to hitts n lotions For h osystm srvi th funtionl groups tht unrpin th provision of tht srvi wr slt. This ws on in similr mnnr s in hptr y onsoliting th rsults from mtrix A (rltionship srvis funtions) n mtrix B (rltionship funtionl groups srvis) to fin th funtionl groups tht unrpin h srvi. For xmpl, for th srvi shorlin prottion n ssntil funtion is moifition of wv n urrnt pttrns (mtrix A). Struturl omplxity is n importnt ftor trmining wv nrgy issiption n rnhing Aropor plmt n mssiv Montstr spp. r importnt orl funtionl groups. Lrgr orl olonis n r orl ovr lso inrs wv nrgy issiption (mtrix B). A wighting ftor ws ssign to h funtionl group to ount for th importn of funtionl groups. Using th ov xmpl, struturl omplxity, Aropor plmt ovr n Montstr spp. ovr wr givn th st wighting ftor 2. Stony orl ovr ws givn wighting ftor 1, us orl ovr is impliitly inlu in th funtionl vlu of struturl omplxity, rnhing n mssiv orl ovr. Soft orl ovr ws lso givn wighting ftor 1, us thy r lss l to issipt wv nrgy. Corl mximum siz ws givn wighting ftor 1, us this initor ws msur for Montstr olonis n is thrfor lso impliitly inlu in th funtionl vlu of Montstr orl ovr. This nlysis of Mtrix A n B ws on for h osystm srvi n rsult in tl 13. Tl 13 shows whih funtionl groups r onsir ssntil initors for osystm srvi livry, st wight, n whih funtionl groups wr givn r sign suh tht it provis for othr vlus to ntr. Th sprsht lso provis for ngtiv vlus, us for xmpl sn ovr hs ngtiv funtionl rltionship with shorlin prottion. 54

55 Tl 13. Funtionl groups n othr initors tht unrpin livry of osystm srvis. x = ssntil funtionl rltionship ( wigth) FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND OTHER INDICATORS o = supporting funtionl rltionship ( wight) - x = ngtiv funtionl rltionship Sri Anthuri Pomntri (msl) Pomntri (hromis) Hmuli Lutjni Srrni Crngi Prtors othr Fish ioivrsity Fish unn Fish mximum siz Aropor plmt Aropor rviornis Montstr nnulris Montstr fvolt Corl Covr Mro lg ovr Gorgonin ovr Spong Sn ovr Rul ovr Rok ovr Corl ioivrsity Corl mximum siz Struturl omplxity Corl mortlity Corl lhing Corl it mrks Cynotri ECOSYSTEM SERVICES 1. Sfoo prouts o o o o x x x x x 2. Rw mtril for proution lim n mnt x o 3. Rw mtril for mins o o o o x o 4. Shorlin prottion x x x o o x 5. Wst ssimiltion x 6. Biologil mintnn of rsilin x x o o o 7. Mintnn of hitts o o o o o o x o 8. Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity x o o x 9. Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion x x 10. Support of tourism n rrtion x x x x x x 11. Support of ulturl intity o o o o x x x x x x 12. Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis o o o o o o o o o x x o o o o o x x o o x o x o x o o Tl 13 ws us to lult th funtionl vlu of h hitt lotion to livr h osystm srvi. Using th sm xmpl gin, th funtionl vlu to provi ostl prottion is th sum of ll funtionl vlus of slt funtionl groups multipli y thir wighting ftor. For xmpl: funtionl vlu struturl omplxity (0-4) x 2 + funtionl vlu orl ovr (0-4) x 1 + t. Th rsulting numril funtionl vlu of h hitt lotion to livr h srvi ws sl into smi- quntittiv orinl sl with lvls,, n non, using th orinl sl lvls for h srvi s shown in tl 14. Tl 14. Orinl sl lvls of funtionl vlus pr osystm srvi. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Low Mium High 1. Sfoo prouts > = = > Rw mtril for proution lim n mnt > = = > Rw mtril for mins > = = > Shorlin prottion > = = > Wst ssimiltion > = = > 7 6. Biologil mintnn of rsilin > = = > Mintnn of hitts > = = > Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity > = = > Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion > = = > Support of tourism n rrtion > = = > Support of ulturl intity > = = > Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis > = = > 73 Th orinl sl lvls wr st s on th foling prinipls: 0 (= no funtionl vlu) ws ssign if th totl numril funtionl vlu ws zro or if th sum of th ssntil funtionl group vlus ws zro; 1 (= funtionl vlu) ws ssign if th totl numril funtionl vlu ws qul to or r thn th sum of ll funtionl groups hving vlu 1 multipli y thir wighting ftor; 2 (= 55

56 funtionl vlu) ws ssign if th totl numril funtionl vlu ws qul to or r thn th sum of ll funtionl groups hving vlu 2 multipli y thir wighting ftor; 3 (= funtionl vlu) ws ssign for numril funtionl vlus with r sum thn th uppr oun of th funtionl vlu. Th rsulting mtrix D in ppnix E shows th funtionl vlus of ll 232 sits to ll osystm srvis on sl from 0 to 3. This ws us to prou funtionl vlu mps Funtionl vlu mps of hitts to support osystm srvis Th 24 funtionl vlu mps show for th two orl rf hitts, th shl zon n th rf zon, wht r th funtionl vlus on sptil sl. Eh survy lotion hs,, or no importn in th livry of th 12 osystm srvis. This shows whih prts of th isln r ologilly importnt for whih osystm srvi. Th mps wr nlyz y ompring th outom with th rsour us groups s intifi in hptr 4.1, whry lls - in th mps rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r of So, Hto, Krlnijk n Blnm, =fish rsrvs n =Crgill slt proution. Th fish n nthi funtionl vlu mps of ppnix F n I wr lso us to xplin th finl mps s prsnt in figur 14 to figur 24 n isuss for h osystm srvi : Eosystm Srvi 1: Sfoo ES1 Sfoo - Shl zon ES1 Sfoo - Rf zon non non Figur 14. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Sfoo. Th rmot r on Bonir n Klin Bonir n th r twn Bop () n th jnt mrin rsrv () hv r funtionl vlu to support fishris thn th rsintil r. This is spilly tru for th shl zon n to lssr xtnt for th rf zon, whih lso hs to funtionl vlu t So n Hto rsintil r. Th shl zon in th fish rsrvs os not istinguish itslf from jnt rsintil r, ut th rf zon in th fish rsrvs os hv slightly r vlu. Th r with th st funtionl vlu n osrv in th rf zon on ithr si of Bop, with th mrin rsrv whr no tivity is l to th right n smll r to th lft whr tivity is proly lso limit u to th proximity to th lrg oil tnkrs. Th yl r in th rf zon in th fr north n xplin y th vry grul slop of th shl zon n rf zon tht ws too fr n too p, hn no fish wr ror in th rf zon. Th yl ots in th shl zon n xplin y th omplt sn of grunts, snpprs, grouprs n jks. 56

57 Eosystm Srvi 2: Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt ES2 Rw mtril lim - Shl zon ES2 Rw mtril lim - Rf zon non non Figur 15. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt. This osystm srvi, xtrtion of lim, is prohiit from th orl rf n rstrit from nint rfs on ln. Furthrmor formtion of limston on ln tks pl ovr gologil tims, so it is iffiult to link th urrnt orl rf osystm to srvi livr in th vry fr futur. Howvr, th ssumption is tht rs with st orl ovr n lrgst orl olony siz hv th st funtionl vlu for futur livry of rw mtril. As th mps show th shl zon oviously hs r funtionl vlu, n st vlu in th rf zon n osrv nr th mrin rsrv n in th fr south. This r whr osionl limston mining tks pl is in th northst, whih r ws not inlu in th survy of this rsrh. Eosystm Srvi 3: Rw mtril for mins ES3 Rw mtril miin - Shl zon ES3 Rw mtril miin - Rf zon non non Figur 16. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Rw mtril for proution of lim n mnt. 57

58 This osystm srvi, xtrtion of ompouns for th proution of miins, is nothr srvi tht is urrntly not tking pl in Bonir. Bsis, wi rng of nthos n us for ioprospting, rnging from ynotri to sws, spongs, molluss, orls, gorgonins n s nmons. Thrfor it is iffiult to link spifi nthi funtionl group or initor to this osystm srvi. Th most rlisti hoi woul ioivrsity, s r ivrsity of spis inrss th vilility of wi rng of potntil ompouns for nxt gnrtions. Howvr, th ioivrsity initor only inlus orl ioivrsity. Thrfor lso mro lg, ynotri, soft orl n spong ovr hv n inlu s thir unn lso supports th vilility of potntil ompouns for futur gnrtions. Th rsulting funtionl vlu mps r lrgly influn y orl ioivrsity, hr n soft orl ovr, s th mro lg, ynotri n spong ovr gnrlly h vlu 0 to 1 (s FG11, FG13 n FG20 in ppnix I). Eosystm Srvi 4: Shorlin prottion ES4 Shorlin prottion - Shl zon ES4 Shorlin prottion - Rf zon non non Figur 17. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Shorlin prottion. As mntion in th prvious hptr, shorlin prottion is lrgly trmin y Aropor plmt in th shl zon n Montstr spp. in th rf zon. Ths r isolt lotions in th shl zon, with on funtionl vlu lotion on Klin Bonir u to rprsnttion of Aropor plmt (FG8.1 in ppnix I). In th rf zon, thr r lrg r of funtionl vlu u to to rprsnttion of Montstr nnulris (FG9.1 in ppnix I) n lvl topogrphi omplxity (FG17 in ppnix I). Th shorlin in th fr north n fr south n in th rsintil r r lst prott. Eosystm Srvi 5: Wst ssimiltion Wst ssimiltion is iffiult osystm srvi to msur, s th ssntil funtion to rmov n rkown xss nutrints n xni ompouns is minly rlt to iologil filtring of filtr frs n miroil prosss. Sin spis with this funtionl rol wr mrly not inlu in th survy, only ynotri mts wr slt s initor of nhn wst ssimiltion of xss nutrints. Th rsulting mp shows hrly ny to rprsnttion of ths ynotri mts, n rprsnttion is sttr roun oil trminl Bop, Bo Slgi, th h north of th most 58

59 northrn mrin rsrv n iv sits st of th othr mrin rsrv n t th southrn prt of Klin Bonir. ES5 Wst ssimiltion - Shl zon ES5 Wst ssimiltion - Rf zon non non Figur 18. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Biologil mintnn of rsilin. Eosystm Srvi 6: Biologil mintnn of rsilin ES6 Mintnn rsilin - Shl zon ES6 Mintnn rsilin - Rf zon non non Figur 19. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Biologil mintnn of rsilin. Rsilin is fin s th pity of n osystm to op with isturns without shifting from orl- omint stt into n lg- or vn rul- omint stt. This is rlt to th mintnn of importnt osystm prosss suh s grzing y hrivors n unnt orl rruitmnt. Bus th lttr ws not inlu in th survy, rsilin is rlt to th rprsnttion of xvting, srping n nuing hrivorous Sri n Anthuri spis. Th mps show rsilin is st north from th rsintil r n st in th south. This n rlt to th r sn ovr n r foo vilility of lgl turf. 59

60 Eosystm Srvi 7: Mintnn of hitts ES7 Mintnn hitts - Shl zon ES7 Mintnn hitts - Rf zon non non Figur 20. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Mintnn of hitts. Most importnt initor for th provision of miro- n mro- hitts is th topogrphi omplxity. This topogrphi omplxity is support y th prsn of Aropor spp. n Montstr spp., ut lso mro lg provi hitt n orl it mrks from prrot fish support th provision of r sustrt to nl orl lrv sttlmnt. Th mps lrly show tht oth th shl n rf zon nr rsintil r hv no to importn in hitt provision. Th rf zon in th fr north lso hs vlu, ut this n xplin y th vry grul slop of th shl zon n rf zon tht ws too fr n p to proprly inlu topogrphi omplxity in th survy t ths lotions. Eosystm Srvi 8: Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity ES8 Mintnn gnti/ioivrsity - Shl ES8 Mintnn gnti/ioivrsity - Rf zon non non Figur 21. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Mintnn of ioivrsity n gnti ivrsity. 60

61 For th mintnn of iologil n gnti ivrsity this rsrh fous on spis ivrsity, whih os not ovr ll sls of ioivrsity, rnging from gns to th ntir osystm. Spis ivrsity inorports th numr of spis n th rltiv unn. Essntil initors for spis ivrsity r fish n orl ioivrsity, whil totl fish n orl unn wr slt s initor to support rltiv unn. Rltiv unn rfrs to how ommon or rr spis is in rltion to othr spis n sys somthing out spis vnnss, whih is not ptur in totl unn, ut it is ssum tht totl unn is likly to hv positiv rltionship with rltiv unn. Th mps show tht ioivrsity is in th mrin rsrvs n in th rf zon in th rmot south. Eosystm Srvi 9: Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion ES9 Asthti/rtisti inspirtion - Shl zon ES9 Asthti/rtisti inspirtion - Rf zon non non Figur 22. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Asthti vlus n rtisti inspirtion. To pprit sthti vlus of orl rfs, sni viws of this tropil ostl ssp n proximity to opn sp r ssntil. Th funtionl groups of sn n orl ovr r ssntilly proviing th typil ssp in shs of lu. In th shl zon this typil ssp is most prominnt in th south- wst u to th prsn of lrg shl zon with hs n sny sustrt. Th othr mor isolt lotions offring mnity vlu r lso nr hs lik Bo Slgi n th h t iv sit 1000 stps. In th rf zon th r twn Bop n So rsintil r hs mnity vlu, whih is u to th r orl ovr tht hppns to mor nr shor n in omintion with th roky ostlin n liffs offrs sni viws. Eosystm Srvi 10: Support of tourism n rrtion Th support of tourism n rrtion on Bonir fouss on ioivrsity- s tivitis lik iving, snorklling n smll- sl rrtionl fishing. For ths tivitis ssntil funtionl groups tht r pprit y tourists r th mor gnrl initors lik fish n orl ioivrsity, fish n orl unn n lrg fish n orl olonis. Th rsulting mps show support of ths tivitis is r in th rf zon thn in th shl zon. Rfs north n south of th rsintil r n on Klin Bonir hv th st ( to ) funtionl vlu, with th lrgst r of vlu in th mrin rsrvs n on th othr si of Bop. Ths r non- us zons for tourists, so lthough vlu is st ths r nnot pprit y n s suh o not support iv tourism. 61

62 ES10 Support tourism/rrtion - Shl zon ES10 Support tourism/rrtion - Rf zon non non Figur 23. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Support of tourism n rrtion. Eosystm Srvi 11: Support of ulturl intity ES11 Support ulturl intity - Shl zon ES11 Support ulturl intity - Rf zon non non Figur 24. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Support of ulturl intity. Culturl intity on Bonir is rlt in this rsrh to soil rltions riv from th (rrtionl) fishing ommunity n to sns of pl rlt to h whr ulturl lrtions tk pl. Espilly th shl zon shows to funtionl vlus nr hs n rrtionl fishing r. Th rf zon rsmls th rf zon mp in figur 14, us th prsn of sfoo is ssntil in th support of ulturl intity. Eosystm Srvi 12: Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis On n rgu tht th ntir orl rf provis informtion tht is ssntil for ution n sintifi rsrh. Funtionl groups slt s most ssntil for sintifi rsrh wr orl ovr, 62

63 lgl ovr, orl lhing, struturl omplxity, fish unn n fish n orl ioivrsity. Most othr funtionl groups r supporting utionl n sintifi informtion srvis s wll. Thrfor th intrprttion of th mps is miguous, s it is vry gnrlist in rprsnts lmost ll funtionl groups. ES12 Eution/sintifi info - Shl zon ES12 Eution/sintifi info - Rf zon non non Figur 25. Funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts to support th livry of osystm srvi Eutionl n sintifi informtion srvis. 63

64 6 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Contxt of this rsrh n othr stuis This stion summrizs th finings of this rsrh n puts thm in th ontxt of othr stuis. As mntion in th mtho ovrviw this rsrh ws omintion of litrtur rviw n mpiril t olltion. Th strngth of th mpiril t olltion is tht osrvtions of th orl rfs of Bonir wr ovring hlf of th isln from shor to rf rst (0-10m) with rgulr, short intrvls twn survy sits. A survy ovring suh lrg r, 60 kilomtr of ostlin with trnsts vry 500m, hs oring to our knowlg not n on sin th mpping of th rfs of Bonir y Vn Duyl (1985). It omplmnts t ollt y othr stuis on Bonir, whih hv smllr sptil sl, ut mthoologil vntgs u to ithr rgulr tim intrvls or prision of msurmnt thniqus. Ths stuis inlu th i- nnul tim sris survy of Stnk t l. (2009) whih ws on in 2007, 2005 n 2003 s wll on 8 stuy sits t 10m pth n svrl inintl survys, onut y IUCN on 21 sits t 10m pth (2011), Bruknr t l. on 25 sits t thr pth rngs (2010) n Sommr t l. on 14 sits t thr pths (2011). Th vntg of this rsrh is tht it provis mor omplt ovrviw of th sttus of th orl rfs on Bonir, whil th isvntg is tht is provis lss urt msurmnts u to th hoi of osrvtion mtho using snorkl inst of su. Th typ of msurmnts with th snorkl survy i not iffr sustntilly from th su survys, msuring fish unn n orl ovr. Th novlty of our snorkl survy ws th visul ssssmnt of topogrphi or struturl omplxity. Thniqus frquntly us to ss topogrphi hitt strutur r linr vrsus ontour rugosity, rf t n siz istriution of rf hols (Wilson t l., 2007). Wilson t l. (2007) foun in thir omprtiv stuy twn ths thniqus n visul ssssmnt tht th lttr fftivly ssss topogrphi omplxity xpt t til sptil sl of hols <10 m imtr. Visul pprisl of prntg ovr of mssiv, rnhing n soft orl, mro- lg, rul n rok ws lso goo msur of nthi omposition ompr to lin intrpt trnst. Although visul thniqus r pron to osrvr is, ftr trining thy n us to quikly provi rlil n fftiv mns of ssssing hitt omplxity n nthos on orl rfs (Wilson t l., 2007). This rsrh is innovtiv in its ttmpt to link th onomi vlu of osystm srvis with n ologil vlu of hitts to support ths osystm srvis. Mumy t l. (2008) lso stlish rltionship twn hitts n osystm srvis, s on th sm stuy of Hrorn t l. (2006) s this rsrh uilt upon. Th mtho for quntifition of osystm srvis y hitt ws on through multiisiplinry working group ssigning vlu on sl from 0-3. Th iffrn is tht this rsrh us primry t of ologil funtioning inst of xprt opinion to ssign funtionl vlus. Th rltionships twn osystm srvis, funtions, prosss n struturs s fin in this rsrh fol th thortil frmwork of Th Eonomis of Eosystms n Bioivrsity (TEEB). Th TEEB pltform is in n of (pulish) s stuis whih implmnt thir mthoology (Ptrik tn Brink, prs. omm., 26/9/2011). At th sm tim TEEB knowlgs tht th rltionship twn osystms n th nfits tht thy provi is oftn non- linr n omplx (Ryrs t l., 2010), rsulting in n invitl simplifition of this omplxity. Nvrthlss this rsrh is onsir usful n first stp to om to mtho to ptur ths rltionships. 6.2 Mthoologil flws, ssumptions n gps Th simplifition of non- linrity n omplxity in stlish funtionl rltionships u to nturl vriility n knowlg gps out osystm funtioning is th min flw of this rsrh. Rltionships twn osystm funtioning n how prosss n struturs fft th provision of srvis thy provi r oftn non- linr n omplx (Bronízio t l., 2010; Ryrs t l., 2010). n Funtions n srvis lso o not show on on on rltionships (Costnz t l., 1997). Although this 64

65 simplifition is onsir limittion of this rsrh, it is lso onsir invitl for this rsrh n not n xus to not try to om to rltionships. Bsis this simplifition, th rltionship mtris o not ount for intr- linkgs twn iffrnt osystm srvis, whry on srvi hs n impt on nothr srvi, for xmpl how provisioning srvi (fishris) rlts to rgulting srvi (mintnn of ioivrsity n iologil mintnn of rsilin). It is rogniz in nvironmntl onomis litrtur tht it is hllng n iffiult to ount for ths intr- linkgs twn srvis (Bronízio t l., 2010). A mthoologil flw in th primry t olltion is th hoi of th survy mtho. A snorkl survy hs its limittions s visul nsus thniqu, us rfs pr thn pproximtly 10 mtr oul not inlu in th survy. For this rson only two hitt typs oul istinguish, th shl zon n th rf zon, whil th pr for rf hitts wr xlu. Also ury to osrv smll or rypti spis ru t grtr pth. As mntion in th mthoology hptr osrvr is ws ru n prision inrs y hving on osrvr ollting fish n nothr osrvr ollting orl t n y vio- roring trnsts to mk til nlysis of th nthos possil. Riving GPS signls work wll through th wtrproof s rri t th surf, ut th lst four trks wr not ror y th GPS, possily us th GPS ws ntngl n slightly sumrg. In hptr 4 iffrns twn rsour us groups wr nlyz using non- prmtri Kruskl Wllis tst for mor thn two groups of not- norml istriut t. Th flw in using this tst is tht th miniml smpl siz rquir is fiv msurmnts (Zijp, 1974), whil th inustril us groups wr thr n four sits rsptivly for Bop oil storg trminl n Crgill slt proution. Hn, p- vlus for signifint iffrns twn groups r not rlil for thos two inustril us groups. Puli hs wr not onsir s sprt rsour us group, vn though hs r importnt n frquntly us for rrtion. Th ssumption ws tht hs r not likly to form uniform group, us thy r sttr long th lwr ost of Bonir. Thrfor hs wr group in th ovrlpping rsour us group, for xmpl Bok Slgi h ws inlu s rmot r n Pink h s iv tourism r. As rsult, potntil impts from h rrtion oul not nlyz. In th orinl sling no istintion ws m in lvls twn th two hitt typs. This is tl, us not ll spis inhit oth th shl n th rf zon qully. For xmpl, hromis r plnkton frs n typilly foun in th wtr olumn ov th rf slop, prsumly rsulting in r unn in th rf zon thn in th shl zon. Th uniform orinl sl lvls o not provi informtion on wht r, or lvls in th rf zon or th shl zon. Howvr, th purpos of th rsrh ws to trmin lvls of rprsnttion of fish n orls in on hitt, rltiv to rprsnttion in nothr hitt n not rltiv to rprsnttion in othr lotions within on hitt typ. In th xmpl of hromis, non to rprsnttion in th shl zon n to rprsnttion in th rf zon is n xpt outom, with lrg iffrn twn hitts n som vrition twn lotions. 6.3 Projt mngmnt implitions Th funtionl vlu mps r mnt to us s prt of on of th projt livrls of Bonir Ntur Worth? : th vlu mp. Th onomi vlu oul ompr to th funtionl vlu in n GIS ovrly to mth if rs of onomi vlu mth rs with funtionl vlu. Th funtionl vlu mp oul lso us in th snrio nlysis n poliy rif to llot rs of onsrvtion potntil, us of thir funtionl vlu. Givn th simplifitions in th rltionship nlysis s isuss in th prvious stion, it is qustion hr how usful n usl th funtionl vlu mps r to us for this purpos. 65

66 6.4 Nxt stps n suggstions for furthr rsrh Outsi th sop of this ologil rsrh ws n nlysis of rivrs of hng n thrts to th orl rf osystm funtions on Bonir. Also omprison twn th rsults of th snorkl survy n th rsults of th vrious su survys s mntion in hptr 6.1 ws not inorport in this rsrh u to tim onstrints. Som mor suggstions for furthr rsrh in thrt nlysis n omprtiv nlysis r m in this hptr. Th omprhnsiv t st from th snorkl survy oul lso us to nlyz orrltions twn fish n orl funtionl groups, for xmpl th orrltion twn topogrphil omplxity n fish unn n ivrsity, s wll s orl ovr n ivrsity. With rgrs to th omprtiv nlysis twn th primry t of this rsrh n th sonry t of othr stuis on Bonir, istintion n m in two typs of nlysis: omprtiv n omplmntry. A omplmntry nlysis rfrs to th us of sonry t to omplmnt n fill th gps of th primry t ollt. For xmpl, orl rruitmnt ws not inlu, us ths r smll spis or olonis tht oul not osrv oing visul ssssmnt using snorkl. Anothr xmpl is to us sonry t from survys t pr for rfs, to omplmnt th limit typs of hitts ovr in th snorkl survy. Othr hitts not ovr in th snorkl survy wr mngrov forsts n sgrss s. A potntil sonry t sour r smi- quntittiv t of th prsn of fish funtionl groups in mngrovs n sgrss in litrtur rviw of Nglkrkn (2007). Ths smi- quntittiv t hv n orinl sl from snt to nsity to nsity. A omprtiv nlysis rfrs to th omprison of similr sits or similr prmtrs. For xmpl th IUCN rsilin stuy lssifi survy sits s, n rsilin, whih n ompr to th outom of th funtionl vlu of th fourth osystm srvi Mintnn of iologil rsilin. With rgrs to th trt nlysis, mny rivrs of hng will hv irt impt on ithr hitts or funtionl groups: ovrfishing might us pltion of rtin fish stok tht r ritil within thir funtionl group; nutrint loing n pollution my ltr ky osystm prosss from on stt to n ltrntiv stt; hitt strution rus th siz of th hitt n thry th vilility of strutur. This rsrh filitts n nlysis of potntil rivrs of hng n thir impts y proviing frmwork of ritil funtionl groups rquir for hlthy osystm livring osystm srvis in sustinl mnnr. A suggstion is to mp thrts y linking h thrt with funtionl group s initor msuring th impt from tht thrt. Th rlvnt mps of funtionl group rprsnttion n us s mp to visuliz impts from tht thrt. For xmpl, inrs lgl ovr n hrivorous fish n us s initor of th impts from nutrint loing. Anothr suggstion is to link h thrt with rsour us group n ompr for funtionl groups tht wr intifi s initor, th iffrns twn usr groups whr th thrt is snt or prsnt. For xmpl orl ovr n orl ivrsity n us s initors of th impt from simnttion from ostl vlopmnt. Rsintil r n inustril r n ompr with th othr rsour us groups whr ostl vlopmnt is snt. 66

67 7 CONCLUSIONS This rsrh stlish th rltionship n funtionl vlu of orl rfs on Bonir to support osystm srvis livr y ths orl rfs. Rltionships wr stlish s on n xtnsiv litrtur stuy n inlu th link twn onomis n osystm funtioning n ioivrsity, whih is oftn th missing link in onomi vlution stuis. Th rltionship nlysis show th omplxity of osystm funtioning, us thr wr fw on- on- on rltionships twn osystm srvis n funtions, or twn funtions n prosss n struturs or twn funtionl groups n funtions. Nvrthlss th ssntil funtions, prosss n struturs of orl rfs hv n summriz n justifi in onis mnnr in rltionship mtris. Th funtionl group pproh ws usful onpt to link spis n thir ologil rols in osystm prosss, n n lso us to link thory n prti in orl rf rsilin ssssmnts (Nystrom t l., 2008). Th snorkl survy rsult in 60 mps showing for 30 funtionl groups in two hitts thir lvl of rprsnttion t h survy lotion. Ths 60 vrils wr nlyz in multivrit nlysis, whih i not rsult in lustrs of lotions with similr funtionl vlus for ll funtionl groups omin. Prfin lustrs of lotions, s on rsour us groups, wr thn nlyz for rsour us group iffrns in funtionl vlus for h funtionl group sprtly. This rsult in som sttistilly signifint iffrns twn rsour us groups, ut this ws not suffiint to justify tht iffrns twn funtionl vlus r xplin y ths prfin rsour us groups. Th mps o provi visul pprisl of th lvl of rprsnttion of ruil funtionl groups long th ntir lwr ost of Bonir, whih hs not n on t suh lrg sl sin th mpping of orl rfs on Bonir in 1985 (Vn Duyl, 1985). Furthrmor ths t wr us s input for th funtionl vlu nlysis. Th funtionl vlution of hitts n lotions to support orl rf osystm srvis i light r of importn to osystm srvis, suh s th mrin rsrvs supporting fish n orl ioivrsity, lium ront proution for rf frmwork uiling n fish unn of r trophi lvls whih r prfrr sfoo. Rsintil r wr showing no to importn in th support of osystm srvis, spilly with rgrs to srvis pnnt on struturl omplxity n orl ovr, suh s shorlin prottion n hitt provision. Surprisingly fish ioivrsity n unn h to funtionl vlu, thry supporting th fishris n tourism. Th fish rsrvs whih r lot in th rsintil r my ontriut to this. Also it is lr tht th mor rmot th rsintil r r, suh s Blnm south n So north of Krlnijk, th mor srvis thy support. 67

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76 APPENDICES Appnix A Clssifition of osystm srvis y TEEB n MEA Appnix B Fish spis survy n rfrns us for orinl sling Appnix C Fish n nthos t rgistrtion shts Appnix D Fish intifition shts Appnix E Mtrix C: Fish n Bnthos funtionl group rprsnttion pr hitt n lotion n Mtrix D: Funtionl vlus to support osystm srvis pr hitt n lotion Appnix F Funtionl vlu mps of hitts s on rprsnttion fish funtionl groups Appnix G Sttistil nlysis of group iffrns twn rsour us groups for fish funtionl vlus in shl zons Appnix H Sttistil nlysis of group iffrns twn rsour us groups for fish funtionl vlus in rf zons Appnix I Funtionl vlu mps of hitts s on rprsnttion nthi funtionl groups 76

77 Appnix A Clssifition of osystm srvis y TEEB n MEA TEEB rf # TEEB osystm srvis (D Groot, 2010) MEA osystm srvis (MEA, 2005) Provisioning Provisioning 1 Foo Foo 2 Wtr Frsh wtr 3 Rw mtril Fir Ful 4 Gnti rsours Gnti rsours 5 Mil rsours Biohmils, nturl miins n phrmutils 6 Ornmntl rsours Ornmntl rsours Rgulting Rgulting 7 Air qulity rgultion Air qulity rgultion 8 Climt rgultion Climt rgultion 9 Mortion of xtrm vnts Nturl hzr rgultion 10 Rgultion of wtr fs Wtr rgultion 11 Wst trtmnt Wtr purifition n wst trtmnt 12 Erosion prvntion Erosion rgultion 13 Mintnn of soil frtility 14 Pollintion Pollintion 15 Biologil ontrol (split in 2 in MEA) Diss rgultion Pst rgultion Hitt n 16 Mintnn of lif yls of migrtory spis 17 Mintnn of gnti ivrsity (n gn pool prottion) Culturl Culturl 18 Asthti informtion Asthti vlus 19 Opportunitis for rrtion n tourism Rrtion n otourism 20 Inspirtion for ultur, rt & sign (split in 5 in MEA) Culturl hritg vlus Culturl ivrsity Soil rltions Sns of pl Inspirtion 21 Spiritul xprin Spiritul n rligious vlus 22 Informtion for ognitiv vlopmnt (split in 2 in MEA) Knowlg systms Eutionl vlus n Supporting Soil formtion Photosynthsis Primry proution Nutrint yling Wtr yling 77

78 Appnix B Fish spis survy n rfrns us for orinl sling Sonry t sours IUCN (2011) Stnk (2009) Hrorn (2006) No. Co Dsription ommon nm - sintifi nm S_TOT PARROTFISH - SCARIDAE 1 S_STOP Stoplight Prrotfish - Sprisom viri x x x 2 S_QUEE Qun Prrotfish - Srus vtul x x 3 S_PRIN Prinss Prrotfish - Srus tnioptrus x x 4 S_STRIP Strip Prrotfish - Srus isrti x x 5 S_RAIN Rinow Prrotfish - Srus gumi x 6 S_REDB Rn Prrotfish - Sprisom urofrntum x x 7 S_REDT Rtil Prrotfish - Sprisom hrysoptrum x x 8 S_REDF Rfin Prrotfish - Sprisom ruripinn x x 9 S_MIDN Minight Prrotfish - Srus olstinus A for ioivrsity ror A_TOT SURGEONFISH - ACANTHURIDAE 10 A_OCEA On Surgonfish - Anthurus hinus x x x 11 A_DOCT Dotorfish - Anthurus hirurgus x x x 12 A_BLUE Blu Tng - Anthurus orulus x x x D_TOT DAMSELFISH - POMACENTRIDAE 13 D_SPOT Thr spot Dmslfish - Stgst plnifrons x x x 14 D_BEAU Bugrgory - Stgsts luostitus x x 15 D_LONG Longfin Dmslfish - Stgsts inus x x 16 D_DUSK Dusky Dmslfish - Stgsts ustus A in funtionl group 17 D_BICO Biolor Dmslfish - Stgsts prtitus A in funtionl group 18 D_YELL Yltil Dmslfish - Mirospthoon hrysurus x x C_TOT CHROMIS - POMACENTRIDAE 19 C_BLUE Blu Chromis - Chromis yn x 20 C_BROW Brown Chromis - Chromis multilint x H_TOT GRUNTS - HAEMULIDAE 21 H_CAES Csr Grunt - Hmulon ronrium x x 22 H_SMAL Smllmouth Grunt - Hmulon hrysrgyrum x x 23 H_FREN Frnh Grunt - Hmulon flvolintum x x x 24 H_WHIT Whit Grunt - Hmulon plumiri x 25 H_BLUE Blustrip Grunt - Hmulon siurus x x 26 H_SAIL Silors Choi - Hmulon prr A for ioivrsity ror 27 H_MARG Blk Mrgt - Anisotrmus surinmnsis x x L_TOT SNAPPERS - LUTJANIDAE 28 L_SCHO Shoolmstr Snppr - Lutjnus pous x x 29 L_CUBE Cur Snppr - Lutjnus ynoptrus x x 30 L_GREY Gry Snppr - Lutjnus grisus x 31 L_MAHO Mhogny Snppr - Lutjnus mhogoni x x 32 L_DOGS Dog Snppr - Lutjnus jou A for ioivrsity ror 33 L_MUTT Mutton Snppr - Lutjnus syngris A for ioivrsity ror 34 L_YELL Yl- til Snppr - Oyurus hrysurus x x G_TOT GROUPERS - SERRANIDAE 35 G_NASS Nssu Groupr - Epinphlus stritus x 36 G_BLAC Blk Groupr - Mytropr oni x 37 G_TIGE Tigr Groupr - Mytropr tigris x x 38 G_YELL Ylfin Groupr - Mytropr vnnos x 39 G_GRAY Grysy - Epinphlus/Cphlopholis runtt x x 40 G_CONE Cony - Epinphlus fulvus/cphlopholis fulv x x 41 G_REDH R Hin - Epinphlus gutttus x x 42 G_ROCK Rok Hin - Epinphlus snsionis x x 43 G_HARL Hrlquin Gss - Srrnus tigrinus x x 44 G_HAML Hmlts - Hypopltrus spp. x x 78

79 Sonry t sours No. Co Dsription ommon nm - sintifi nm IUCN (2011) Stnk (2009) Hrorn (2006) J_TOT JACKS - CARANGIDAE 45 J_HORS Hors y Jk - Crnx ltus x x 46 J_BARJ Br Jk - Crnx rur x x 47 J_PALO Plomt - Trhinotus gooi A for ioivrsity ror 48 J_BLAC Blk Jk - Crnx luguris / Crvll - Crnx hippos A for ioivrsity ror 49 J_PERM Prmit - Trhinotus fltus / Afrin Pompno - Altis iliris A for ioivrsity ror P_TOT OTHER PREDATORS 50 P_TRUM Trumptfish - Aulostomus multus x x 51 P_HOGF Spnish Hogfish - Boinus rufus x x 52 P_FLOU Pok Flounr - Bothus luntus x x 53 P_MORA Morys - Gymnothorx spp. x x 54 P_SCOR Spott Sorpionfish - Sorpn plumiri x x 55 P_LION Lionfish - Ptrois volitns A for invsiv spis 56 P_BARR Grt Brru - Sphyrn rru x x 57 P_LIZA Sn Divr / Lizrfish - Synous intrmius x x OTHER SPECIES 58 O_SERG Srgnt Mjor - Aufuf sxtilis A for ioivrsity ror 59 O_GOAT_YELL Yl Gotfish - Mulloiihthys mrtinius A for ioivrsity ror 60 O_GOAT_SPOT Spott Gotfish - Psuupnus multus A for ioivrsity ror 61 O_ANGE_ROCK Rok Buty - Holnthus triolor x 62 O_ANGE_FREN Frnh Anglfish - Pomnthus pru x 63 O_ANGE_QUEE Qun Anglfish - Holnthus iliris A for ioivrsity ror 64 O_FILE Filfish - Monnthi spp. A for ioivrsity ror 65 O_BALL_TRUN Trunkfish - Ltophrys spp. A for ioivrsity ror 66 O_BALL_COWF Cowfish - Anthostrion spp. A for ioivrsity ror 67 O_BALL_BURR Burrfish - Chilomytrus spp. A for ioivrsity ror 68 O_BALL_PORC Porupin - Dioon spp. A for ioivrsity ror 69 O_SOLD_SPP. Squirrlfish - holontri spp. A for ioivrsity ror 70 O_BUTT_BAND Bn Buttrflyfish - Chtoon stritus x 71 O_BUTT_4EYE Four y Buttrflyfish - Chtoon pistrtus x 72 O_BUTT_REEF Rf Buttrflyfish - Chtoon sntrius x 73 O_WRAS_BLUE Bluh Wrss - Thlssom ifsitum A for ioivrsity ror 74 O_WRAS_YELL Ylh Wrss - Hlihors grnoti A for ioivrsity ror 75 O_WRAS_PUDD Puingwif - Hlihors ritus A for ioivrsity ror 76 O_WRAS_CREO Crol Wrss - Clptius prr A for ioivrsity ror 77 O_TRIG_BLAC Blk Durgon - Mlihthys nigr A for ioivrsity ror 78 O_TRIG_OCEA On Triggrfish- Cnthirmis sufflmn A for ioivrsity ror 79 O_TRIG_QUEE Qun Triggrfish - Blists vtul A for ioivrsity ror 80 O_CHUB_SPP Brmu Chu - Kyphosus sttrix x 81 O_CREO Atlnti Crolfish - Prnthis furifr A for ioivrsity ror 82 O_SOAP Grtr Sopfish - Ryptius sponus A for ioivrsity ror 83 O_MAJO Ylfin Mojrr - Grrs inrus A for ioivrsity ror 84 O_BONE Bonfish - Alul vulps A for ioivrsity ror 85 O_WAHO Whoo - Anthoyium solnri / Cro - Somromorus rglis A for ioivrsity ror 86 O_TARP Trpon - Mglops tlntius A for ioivrsity ror 87 O_TURT Turtl A for ioivrsity ror 88 O_SQUI Squi A for ioivrsity ror 89 O_RAY Southrn Stingry - Dsytis mrin A for ioivrsity ror 79

80 Appnix C Fish n nthos t rgistrtion shts FISH DATA ENTRY SHEET Dt: My / Jun 2011 P A R R O T F I S H S U R G D A M S E L C H R G R U N T S N A P P E R S E R R A N I D A E J A C P R E D A T O R S O T H E R Fish ivrsity & unn Co GPS Wigh point Wpt Tim in In Tim out Out Mx siz fish (grouprs in m) FMS Stoplight - Sprisom viri Pstop Qun - Srus vtul Pqu Prinss - Srus tnioptrus Pprin Strip - Srus isrti Pstri Rinow - Srus gumi Prin Rn - Sprisom urofrntum Pr Rtil - Sprisom hrysoptrum Prt Rfin - Sprisom ruripinn Prf On surgonfish - Anthurus hinus So Dotorfish - Anthurus hirurgus Sot Blu Tng - Anthurus orulus Slu Thr spot - Stgst plnifrons Dspot Bugrgory - Stgsts luostitus Du Longfin - Stgsts inus Dlong Dusky - Stgsts ustus Dusk Biolor - Stgsts prtitus Dio Yltil - Mirospthoon hrysurus Dyll Blu Chromis - Chromis yn Clu Brown Chromis - Chromis multilint Crow Csr grunt - Hmulon ronrium Hs Smllmouth grunt - Hmulon Hsml Frnh grunt - Hmulon flvolintum Hfrn Whit grunt - Hmulon plumiri Hwhit Blustrip Grunt - Hmulon siurus Hlu Blk mrgt - Anisotrmus surinmnsis Hmrg Shoolmstr - Lutjnus pous Ssho Cur snppr - Lutjnus ynoptrus Su Gry snppr - Lutjnus grisus Sgry Mhogny snppr - Lutjnus mhogoni Smho Ln snppr - Lutjnus syngris Sln Yl- til snppr - Oyurus hrysurus Syll Nssu groupr - Epinphlus stritus Gnss Blk groupr - Mytropr oni Gl Tigr groupr - Mytropr tigris Gtig Ylfin groupr - Mytropr vnnos Gyll Grysy - Epinphlus runtt Ggry Cony - Epinphlus fulvus/cphlopholis fulv Gon R hin - Epinphlus gutttus Gr Rok hin - Epinphlus snsionis Grok Hrlquin ss - Srrnus tigrinus Ghrl Hmlts - Hypopltrus spp. Ghml Hors y jk - Crnx ltus Jhors Br jk - Crnx rur Jr Trumptfish - Aulostomus multus Trum Spnish hogfish - Boinus rufus Hogf Pok flounr - Bothus luntus Flou Morys - Gymnothorx spp. Mor Spott sorpionfish - Sorpn plumiri Sor Lionfish - Ptrois volitns Lion Grt Brru - Sphyrn rru Brr Sn ivr / lizrfish - Synous intrmius Liz Srgnt mjor Smj Gotfish Got Anglfish Ang Fil fish Fil Blloon fish Bll Solirfish Sol Buttrflyfish Butt Wrss Wrs Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf 80

81 C O R A L S U B S T R A T E O T BENTHOS DATA ENTRY SHEET Dt: My / Jun 2011 Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Sit #... Bnthos ivrsity & unn Co sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf sn rf GPS Wigh point Wpt Tim in In Tim out Out Aropor plmt Apl Aropor rviornis Ar Montstr nnulris Mnn Montstr fvolt Mfv Mx siz olony Montstr CMS Corl ivrsity (# of spis) CD Corl mortlity ol CMo Corl mortlity nw CMn Bit mrks BM Topogrphi omplxity TC Corl ovr (%) CC Mro lg ovr (%) MAC Gorgonins Gorg Spongs Spon Cynotri mts Cyn Tunit mts (%): Triimnum solium Tsol Rul (%) Ru Sn/silt (%) Sn Hr groun/rok (%) Rok Dim ntillrum Dnt 81

82 Appnix F Funtionl vlu mps of hitts s on rprsnttion fish funtionl groups FG1.1 Sri - Shl zon FG1.1 Sri - Rf zon non non FG1.2 Anthuri - Shl zon FG1.2 Anthuri - Rf zon non non FG1.3 Pomntri (Dmsl) - Shl zon FG1.3 Pomntri (Dmsl) - Rf zon non non 82

83 Figur 1. (S prvious pg) Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of hrivorous fish funtionl groups (F G), whry F G1.1 r svting prrotfish Sri spp., F G1.2 r nuing surgonfish Anthuri spp., n F G1.3 r non-nuing mslfish Pomntri spp. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG2 Pomntri (Chromis) - Shl zon FG2 Pomntri (Chromis) - Rf zon non non Figur 2. Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of th plnktivorous fish funtionl group F G2 hromis Pomntri spp. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG3.1 Hmuli - Shl zon FG3.1 Hmuli - Rf zon non non 83

84 FG3.2 Lutjni - Shl zon FG3.2 Lutjni - Rf zon non non Figur 3. (S lso prvious pg) Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of omnivorous fish funtionl groups (F G) whry F G3.1 r grunts Hmuli spp., n F G3.2 r snpprs Lutjni spp. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG4.1 Srrni - Shl zon FG4.1 Srrni - Rf zon non non FG4.2 Crngi - Shl zon FG4.2 Crngi - Rf zon non non 84

85 FG4.3 Othr prtors - Shl zon FG4.3 Othr prtors - Rf zon non non Figur 4. (S lso prvious pg) Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of prtory fish funtionl groups, whry F G4.1 r grouprs Srrni spp., F G4.2 r jks Crngi spp., n F G4.3 r prtors from 7 iffrnt fmilis. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG5 Fish ioivrsity - Shl zon FG5 Fish ioivrsity - Rf zon non non Figur 5. Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of initor F G5 ioivrsity of fish spis. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. 85

86 FG6 Fish unn - Shl zon FG6 Fish unn - Rf zon non non Figur 6. Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of initor F G6 totl unn of fish spis. Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG7 Fish mximum siz - Shl zon FG7 Fish mximum siz - Rf zon non non Figur 7. Mps of funtionl vlu of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of initor F G7 Fish mximum siz of prtors inluing grouprs (Srrni spp.), jks (Crngi spp.) n Cur snpprs (Lutjnus ynoptrus). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. 86

87 Appnix G Sttistil nlysis of group iffrns twn rsour us groups for fish funtionl vlus in shl zons Prrotfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 23,986; p = 0,0011 Dpn.: Prrotfish Aunn (100 2 m) Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Prrotfish Aunn (100 ) (DfinitifFishCor m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =23,98603 p =,0011 Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT R:89,056 R:61,313 R:60,810 R:71,135 R:48,250 R:41,853 R:75,000 R:20,000 1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

88 Surgonfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 17,5875; p = 0,0140 Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Surgonfish Aunn (100 2 ) (DfinitifFish m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =17,58754 p =,0140 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Surgonfish Aunn (100 2 ) m R:45,889 R:54,813 R:44,929 R:79,115 R:54,393 R:52,235 R:84,000 R:67,750 Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT 1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

89 Dmslfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 26,6198; p = 0,0004 Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Dmslfish Aunn (100 ) (DfinitifFishC m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =26,61979 p =,0004 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Dmslfish A unn (100 m) R:77,000 R:70,000 R:80,238 R:54,192 R:47,250 R:44,588 R:91,000 R:21,250 Rsrv 1, , , , , , , FPA 1, , , , , , , Isln 1, , , , , , , Rmot 1, , , , , , , Div 0, , , , , , , Town 0, , , , , , , BOPEC SALT 1, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

90 Chromis Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 9,4702; p = 0,2206 Grunt Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 13,2617; p = 0,

91 Snppr Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 13,3374; p = 0,0643 Groupr Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 18,2195; p = 0,

92 Jk Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 10,2729; p = 0,1736 Prtor Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 11,5509; p = 0,

93 Bioivrsity (# of spis): KW-H(7;116) = 18,0239; p = 0,0119 Totl Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 21,6527; p = 0,

94 Appnix H Sttistil nlysis of group iffrns twn rsour us groups for fish funtionl vlus in rf zons Prrotfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 17,0981; p = 0,

95 Surgonfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 12,5895; p = 0,0828 Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Surgonfish Aunn (100 2 ) (DfinitifFish m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =12,58947 p =,0828 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Surgonfish Aunn (100 2 ) m R:89,778 R:68,313 R:60,619 R:55,423 R:49,143 R:52,912 R:48,333 R:74,250 Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT 1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Dmslfish Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 20,5507; p = 0,

96 Dpn.: Dmslfish Aunn (100 2 m) Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Dmslfish Aunn (100 ) (DfinitifFishC m Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =20,55071 p =,0045 Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT R:66,778 R:61,438 R:80,214 R:40,346 R:57,268 R:60,206 R:72,000 R:29,250 1, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Chromis Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 16,0459; p = 0,

97 Grunt Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 14,5036; p = 0,0429 Snppr Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 11,951; p = 0,

98 Groupr Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 7,0249; p = 0,4263 Jk Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 8,7911; p = 0,

99 Prtor Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 7,6133; p = 0,3679 Bioivrsity (# of spis): KW-H(7;116) = 26,6393; p = 0,

100 Multipl Comprisons p vlus (2-til); Bioivrsity (# of spis) (DfinitifFishCorlDt Inpnnt (grouping) vril: Ar Kruskl-Wllis tst: H ( 7, N= 116) =26,63930 p =,0004 Dpn.: Rsrv FPA Isln Rmot Div Town BOPEC SALT Bioivrsity (# of spis) R:98,333 R:41,375 R:72,381 R:45,962 R:59,339 R:44,794 R:81,000 R:47,250 Rsrv 0, , , , , , , FPA 0, , , , , , , Isln 1, , , , , , , Rmot 0, , , , , , , Div 0, , , , , , , Town 0, , , , , , , BOPEC 1, , , , , , , SALT 0, , , , , , , Totl Aunn (100 m 2 ): KW-H(7;116) = 20,8619; p = 0,

101 Appnix I Hitt funtionl vlu mps s on rprsnttion nthi funtionl groups Figurs prsnt funtionl vlu mps of shl n rf hitts msur y th rprsnttion of nthi funtionl groups (F G8-F G20). Lls - rfr to th foling mrin n ostl r: =mrin rsrvs, =Bop oil trminl, =rsintil r, =fish rsrvs n = Crgill slt proution. FG8.1 Aropor plmt - Shl zon FG8.1 Aropor plmt - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG8.2 Aropor rviornis - Shl zon FG8.2 Aropor rviornis - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG9.1 Montstr nnulris - Shl zon FG9.1 Montstr nnulris - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 101

102 FG9.2 Montstr fvolt - Shl zon FG9.2 Montstr fvolt - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG10 Corl ovr - Shl zon FG10 Corl ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG11 Mro lg ovr - Shl zon FG11 Mro lg ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 102

103 FG12 Gorgonin soft orl ovr - Shl zon FG12 Gorgonin soft orl ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG13 Spong ovr - Shl zon FG13 Spong ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG14.1 Sn ovr - Shl zon FG14.1 Sn ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 103

104 FG14.2 Corl rul ovr - Shl zon FG14.2 Corl rul ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 14.3 Rok ovr - Shl zon 14.3 Rok ovr - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG15 Corl ioivrsity - Shl zon FG15 Corl ioivrsity - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 104

105 FG16 Corl mximum siz - Shl zon FG16 Corl mximum siz - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG17 Topogrphi Complxity - Shl zon FG17 Topogrphi Complxity - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG18.1 Corl mortlity - Shl zon FG18.1 Corl mortlity - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 105

106 FG18.2 Corl lhing - Shl zon FG18.2 Corl lhing - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG19 Bit mrks prrotfish - Shl zon FG19 Bit mrks prrotfish - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt FG20 Cynotri - Shl zon FG20 Cynotri - Rf zon non prsnt non prsnt 106