Tikal, in northern Guatemala, is the largest and perhaps oldest Mayan city. It spread over fifty square miles. Tikal s population may have reached

Transcription

1 THE MAYANS The Mayan culture spread throughout southern Mexico and Central America. It included the Yucatan Peninsula to the northas well as the modern countries of Honduras, Belize, El Salvador,and Guatemala in the south. It stretched from the Gulf of Mexicoin the west to the Caribbean Sea in the east. Historians divide the story of the Mayans into three periods: the pre-classic, the classic, and the post classic. The pre-classic era lasted from about 2,500 B.C. to 250 A.D. and was a period when the Mayas came in contact with the Olmec Indians. During this time the early Mayans fished and settled along the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Eventually, as they borrowed from Olmec influences, they moved inland and began planting crops. Eventually the Mayans would develop into an agricultural society using slash-and-burn techniques, terrace farming, & irrigation. As the Mayan culture evolved, its society developed into four basic social groups or classes. The nobles were at the top of the social structure and included priests and warriors. The second level was made up of their elite merchants and artisans. Peasant farmers provided all the food for the society and were the third social class. At the bottom were the enslaved workers. Naturally, the division of labor followed the social class structure. Artisans included jewelers, weavers, potters, stonecutters, and masons. Traders and merchants would buy and sell goods between city-states and other neighboring tribes, while soldiers and warriors provided security and defense. The Mayan classic era continued from 250 to 900 A.D. During this period the Mayan Empire was divided into many city-states. Each city-state had its own ruler whom they believed was also their religious leader and high priest. Religion was important to every part of Mayan life. The Mayans worshipped many gods (polytheistic) and had a variety of religious festivals and celebrations. Most of these celebrations included animal and human sacrifices. As a result of the strong religious influences, the Mayans developed a theocratic form of government. The ruins of the major Mayan cities remained hidden in the dense jungles for many centuries until Archaeologists discovered their locations. At first, Archaeologists thought these locations were only religious centers. After further studies, they found that they were actually complete cities. The ceremonial center formed the heart of each city. Tall pyramids topped with temples stood in large open plazas with public buildings, palaces, market centers, homes, and even ball courts surrounding them.

2 Tikal, in northern Guatemala, is the largest and perhaps oldest Mayan city. It spread over fifty square miles. Tikal s population may have reached over 100,000 people. The central plaza in Tikal is the central focal point for eight outer pyramid temples. The temple of the Giant Jaguar and its pyramid rise over 200 feet into the sky. Archaeologists discovered a tomb inside the pyramid that housed a treasure of jade, pearl, and shell jewelry. Copan, the second largest Mayan city, has five main plazas. The most famous ruin in Copan is the great staircase. It is 30 feet wide and has 63 steps, with picture writing covering each step. The ruins of the third great Mayan city, Chichen Itza, incudes several plazas, pyramid temples, and ball courts. The great pyramid of Chichen Itza is visible for miles and is located near the city s large observatory tower that was used by ancient Mayan astronomers. Due to their technological advancements in mathematics and astronomy, the Mayans developed two different calendars. One was a sacred calendar, and the other was used for planning regular events. The sacred calendar had 250 days with 20 day names related to their associated gods and goddesses. The other calendar, based on the movement of the earth around the sun, had 365 days. This calendar had 18 months of 20 days each because the Mayans believed that any extra amount of days would be unlucky. In addition to their technological advances, the Mayan people also developed several forms of art. The Mayans wove a variety of baskets from reeds, vines, rushes, and splint cane. Mayan women also wove brightly colored clothes and carpets using cotton and animal fur. Although the Mayans never developed metal working, they did use various styles of pottery and produced beautifully colored wall murals called frescoes. During the classic era, the Mayans also became great traders. Extensive trade alliances were formed with their neighbors and trade routes developed throughout the Mayan lands connecting their great cities to the areas of Guatemala, Belieze, and the Caribbean islands. Inland, small pathways crisscrossed the land, while on the coastal regions the Mayans used large seagoing canoes to trade with the neighboring islands. Eventually, as trade got better, they developed a pictographic system of writing (known as glyphs) to record both their economic and religious activities. Important historical events were also recorded in bark-paper books known as their codex. Although four of these books still exist, none of them explain why the Mayan people abandoned their cities and disappeared without a trace around 900 A.D.

3 THE INCAS The early history of the Incas is a mystery since the Incas never developed a system of writing. The Incas probably began as one of many small tribes in the Andes Mountains. At its peak, the Incan Empire spread through parts of what are now Peru, Ecudor, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. The Incas conquered most of their territory under the leadership of Emperor Pachacutec, who ruled from 1438 to The Incas crushed most of the other Andean Mountain tribes during brutal fighting. The Incan Empire became so large that they built a system of roads that stretched over 12,000 miles. The Incas two major roads were the Royal Road and the Coastal Road. The Royal Road was 3,250 miles long and connected the Empire from its northern border through Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. The Coastal Road was about 2,520 miles long and ran from the village of Tumbes in the north, through the desert, to the coast of Chile in the south. Although they did not use wheeled vehicles, these great pedestrian roadways were as great as the roads created by the ancient Romans. The Incas were primarily an agricultural society and developed terrace farming by cutting deep terraces into the steep sides of the mountains. Using their technological skills, they also dug irrigation systems to bring water from the high mountain streams to the terraced farmlands. Many of the foods we eat today were also part of the Incan diet. Incan farmers grew a greater variety of crops than any other ancient American tribe. Their crops included potatoes, maize (corn), tomatoes, avocados, peppers, strawberries, peanuts, cashews, squash, beans, pineapples, chocolate, and many others. Like other Indian tribes of the region, the Incas worshipped many gods and goddesses (Polytheistic). Originally known as the Children of the Sun God, the Incas believed that their rulers were descendents of the gods. They worshipped him as both a god and a ruler, and therefore practiced a theocratic form of government. Religious ceremonies were also an important part of Incan life. Major religious festivals were held during each of the twelve months of their calendar and often included both animal and human offerings and sacrifices. Although the Incas didn t have a known form of writing, their know-ledge and understanding of mathematics and astronomy allowed them to develop a calendar and a counting system that used a base of ten. It was based on the use of a colored cord (called a quipus) that they tied knots into. The color of the strings in the cord and the distance between each knot had special meanings for determining amounts and was used extensively by merchants, traders, masons, and architects.

4 In addition to being farmers, the Incas were master builders. They had the best planned cities in the ancient Americas. Planners laid out the cities in grids with a central plaza and many major temples, palaces, and homes for priests and nobles. Surrounding the central city were the homes of the rest of the tribes people. The two most famous Incan cities are Cuzco and Machu Picchu. Incan legend says that the first Incan ruler founded the city of Cuzco about 1100 A.D. Cuzco soon became the capital of the Incan Empire and was located in a mountain Valley about 11,000 feet above sea level. The best preserved Incan city is Machu Picchu. Explorers discovered the city in Its ruins are located high in the Andean Mountains and include temples, palaces, military buildings, and common houses. The Incas of Machu Picchu also built terraces for farming and a stone aqueduct to bring water to their crops from miles away. In addition to their city and road building, the Incas were also excellent bridge builders. The bridge causeways were used to span swampy areas and the high mountain passages that connected the empire. The amazing hanging bridges (called Chacas) are the most famous in the world. One Incan bridge was recorded to be over 250 feet long and was used by the Incas from 1350 until Like most civilizations, the Incas had a division of labor that followed their social structure. While warriors and soldiers protected the empire, artisans and merchants made and traded their goods. Weaving was one of the most important crafts of the ancient Incas. The women did most of the dying, spinning, and weaving of cloth. However, Incan men would often weave mat carpets and baskets. The Incas were also known for creating a variety of pottery. Examples survive of three-legged pots, plates, and drinking cups. Unlike their other Indian counterparts, the Incas also developed metalworking skills. They eventually used gold, silver, copper, and tin to make metal objects, and discovered how to make bronze by mixing copper and tin together. Incan society was also divided into social classes based on family groups or clans (called Ayllu). The highest level of society was the nobility made up of priests and warriors. The middle class included merchants and traders, and the peasant farmers formed the lower class. At the bottom were the enslaved workers who did much of the manual labor.

5 THE AZTECS The Aztec Indians began settling In the Valley of Mexico around 1200 A.D. in an area that rises 7,500 feet above sea level an is surrounded by tropical rain forests and mild climates. By the early 1400 s, the Aztecs had gained control of their region and established a number of city-states. Each city-state had its own government and distinct culture. The three major city-states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, & Tlatelolco formed an alliance That became the Aztec Empire. At one time At least 489 cities paid tribute and taxes to The Aztec Empire. A council of nobles always chose the emperor from members of the royal family. Their greatest emperor, Montezuma I, ruled from 1440 to He expanded the empire from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts and from Central America to what is now Guatemala. The Aztecs made no effort to unify the area that they controlled or the change the culture and customs of the people they conquered. Instead, they stationed military units throughout the empire to maintain control. A great noble commanded each army unit and also served as the regions governor. As a result, the Aztec empire eventually included 38 provinces. Aztec society was divided into four main social classes. The upper class priests and nobles owned the land. The elite commoners made up the second class and included merchants and artisans (crafters). Serfs, the third class of the society, farmed the land of their nobles. Slaves, who were the lowest class, were either prisoners of war, criminals, or citizens who were unable to pay their debts. Slaves became household servants or did the manual labor for farmers and masons. Aztec methods of farming were similar to those of other tribes in Meso- America. Aztec farmers used two methods of agriculture, terrace farming (known as Chinampas) and the slash and burn method for clearing fields for planting. In addition, the Aztec also developed many canals and irrigation systems to water their crops. Corn, called maize by the Aztecs, was the main crop. The Aztec farmers also grew avocados, beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. Major lowland crops included cotton, papayas, rubber, and cacao beans (used to make chocolate). Like other great Indian civilizations in Mesoamerica, the Aztecs developed great cities. The greatest city of the Aztecs was Tenochtitlan. Early Aztec settlers built a village on an island in Lake Texcoco. They chose the island since the lake surrounding it provided a natural defense. A twin village, Tlaltelolco was

6 built on another island to the north. Eventually, a third city, Texaco, would be built and create the third city in the great Aztec alliance. As the cities grew, the people developed a system of criss-crossing canals that served as the city s road system. A great plaza was located in the center of the city. The largest structure in the plaza was the pyramid and double temple built to the Aztec gods. Four other temples and the sacred ball court were also built in the great plaza. Other buildings in the plaza included the home of the priests, the house of the military guards, and the great palace of the ruler Montezuma. A large market place and the famous calendar stone were also located in the great plaza. For the Aztecs, religion was an important part of their daily lives. The Aztecs worshipped many gods and goddesses (polytheism). Each village had its own patron god. The people worshipped the various gods and goddesses to attract the good forces of nature and to repel harmful demons. During the year, the Aztecs held many ceremonies and festivals, which included the practice of animal and human sacrifices. The Aztecs, like other tribes, believed that the blood given in sacrifice gave the gods new energy and strength. As a result of their strong religious influences, the Aztecs had a theocratic form of government. Aztec society also had divisions of labor that were closely connected to their social class structure. While the nobles controlled all the lands and Influenced political issues, warriors and soldiers provided protection and security. Artisans developed Aztec art and learned how to create pottery, sculptures, jewelry from an assortment of materials that included wood, clay, jade, turquoise, emerald, and obsidian. In addition, Aztec craftsmen learned how to do metalworking using gold, silver, and even copper. Aztec women spend much of their time weaving, dying, and decorating clothing and carpet. In turn, Aztec merchants bartered and traded goods with neighboring city-states. The Aztecs, like the Mayans and Incas, utilized their knowledge of mathematics and astronomy to create two calendars: the lunar calendar that had 260 days and the solar calendar that was based on the 365 days it took the earth to orbit the sun. In addition, their technological advanced allowed them to build great pyramids, temples, and develop their form of pictograph writing. Through their military and trade alliances, the Aztecs became the most powerful civilization in ancient Meso-America.