Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

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1 VOLUME 2 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport Focusing on: Transport Fuels

2 Volumes already published: Volume 1 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport, Focusing on: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Vienna, Dezember 2007 IMPRINT Owner, publisher and media proprietor: Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology BMVIT A-1010 Vienna, Renngasse 5 Responsible for content: Unit of Mobility and Transport Technologies Head of Department: Evelinde Grassegger Deputy Head of Department: Andreas Dorda Editorial: Austrian Agency for Alternative Propulsion Systems (A3PS) Bernhard Egger, Stefan Herndler Tech Gate Vienna, Donau City Strasse 1, A-1220 Vienna Production: Projektfabrik Waldhör KEG A-1180 Vienna, Währinger Strasse 121/3 Photos and illustrations: BMVIT project partners, fotolia, pixelio.de, Projektfabrik Waldhör KEG 2 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface... 5 Editorial... 6 Review article on transport fuels... 8 A3-Projects EU-Projects Austrian institutions in the field of transport fuels Contacts and information

4 4 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

5 PREFACE Transportfuelsareacrucialfactorinachievingincreasinglyambitiousclimatepolicy goalsandasustainablemobilitysystem.alternativepropulsionsystemsneednewor modifiedfuels,tunedtotheirspecificrequirements,andofferopportunitiesfor reducingpollutants,greenhousegasesandnoise. TheAustrianMinistryforTransport,InnovationandTechnology(BMVIT)hastherefore fundedresearchanddevelopmentofalternativefuelsunderitsa3(austrianadvanced AutomotiveTechnology)Programmesince2002,andnowinthenewA3plus Programme.Tosecurethemarketintroductionofalternativepropulsionsystemsand fuels,thebmvitissupportingpilotanddemonstrationprojects,includingsupportfor theusersofthesenewtechnologies,withthegoalofoptimisingthesesystemsand fuelsunderreal lifeconditions. 78R&Dcooperationprojectshavebeenrealised,withanoverallbudgetof40million eurosandsponsorshipfundingof20.4millioneuros;andafurther8demonstration projects,withanoverallbudgetof7.4millioneurosandfundingof3.4millioneuros, havebeenputintoactionbetween2002and2006.in2007another18r&dprojects and3pilotprojectshavebeenselectedforfundingunderthenewa3plusprogramme. Austria sautomotiveindustryincludessomeofthebiggestsupply sidecompanies worldwide.with175,000employees,itisstronglyengagedintheengineeringand productionofpropulsionsystemsandfuels.thebmvitstrivesforsynergies,basedon itscorecompetencesintheareasoftransportandtechnologypolicy,inorderto securethecompetitivenessofthisindustrythroughconstantinnovation.itis furthermoreaimingtosolveurgenttransportandenvironmentalproblemsbyusing newtechnologies. Internationalco operationisakeyfactorforsuccessinmeetingglobalchallenges, whicharereflectedbyambitiousgoalsandmandatorynationalandeutargetsfor energyefficiency,securityofenergysupplyandreductionofpollutantsand greenhousegasemissions.austriathereforecooperatesstronglywitheutechnology platforms,fp7partnersandtheiea.theaustrianagencyforalternativepropulsion SystemsandFuels(A3PS),withitscurrently27partners,isanimportantinstrumentas aplatformforinternationalnetworkingandco operationbetweenindustry,universities, researchinstitutesandthebmvitinseekingtoachievethesegoals. CHRISTA KRANZL StateSecretaryforInnovationandTechnologyatthe AustrianFederalMinistryforTransport,Innovation andtechnology 5

6 EDITORIAL Alternativefuelsareahotspotforthetransportandenergyindustryaswellasforthe internationalresearchcommunity,hencetheyareofstrategicimportancefor technologypolicymakers.themarketintroductionofthesefuelscouldsolve environmentalproblemsandsecuretheenergysupplyforthetransportsector.this technologicalprogresswouldensurethecompetitivenessoftheautomotiveindustry asakeysectorinaustriaandpreparetheglobaltransportindustryforchallengeslike tighteningemissionstandards.thecleargoaltomeeteuropeancommission obligationstoreducegreenhousegasesbyatleast20%by2020andforcontinued reductionofpollutantsisachallengenotonlyforthevehicleindustrybutforthefuel industryaswell. Againstthebackgroundofsteadilyrisingoilpricesandincreasingdependenceonoil importsfrompoliticallyunstableregions,strongpressuretochangetheexistingenergy supplyisevident.thetransportsectorisalreadyresponsibleforalargeshareofoverall energyconsumption,likelytorisefurtherinthefuture.accordingly,concretesteps towardsimprovingenergyefficiencyanddevelopingalternativeenergysupplyare indispensable. TheAustriangovernmenthasthereforedecidedtoimplementanEnergyFundinits governmentprogramme,withaninvestmentvolumeof500millioneuros,andhasset upthefollowingadditionaltargetstoreachtheambitiousgoalofa20%greenhouse gasreduction: Increasingtheproportionofalternativefuelsinthetransportsectorto10%by2010, andto20%in2020 5%ofnewregisteredcarsaretobeequippedwithanalternativepropulsionsystem (Hybrid,E 85,CNG,LNG,etc.) Increasingtheproportionofrenewableenergywithintotalenergyconsumptiontoat least25%by2010and(inrelationtothepresentproportion)doublingitto45%by 2020 NationwideimplementationofE 85andmethanefillingstationsinAustria Adoublingofbiomassuseby2020 Establishingamethane basedfuelwithabio methanecontentofatleast20%by 2010 Improvingtheregulatoryframeworkforbiogasfeed in 6 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

7 TheEuropeanCommissionhassetsimilarlyambitioustargets foreuropeanenergypolicy.basedonthealreadymandatory biofuelsdirective,withaproportionof5.75%biofuelsin2010 (2008inAustria),theEUisaimingto: Increasetheproportionofalternativefuelsinthetransport sectorto10%by2020 ReduceCO 2 by20% 30%by2020 Increasetheproportionofrenewableenergywithintotal energyconsumptionto20%by2020 ReduceaverageCO 2 fleetconsumptionto120/130gco 2 /km Researchanddevelopmentareessentialinachievingambitious energypolicygoals.thefundingofr&dinthefieldof alternativefuelsandnewpropulsionsystemshastobe increasedsubstantiallyinordertorealiseasustainabletransport andenergysysteminthefuture.onlysimultaneousinnovations infuelproduction,storageandvehicletechnologywillleadtoa reductioninenergyconsumptionandingreenhousegas emissions. Respondingtothis,theAustrianMinistryforTransport, InnovationandTechnologyhadlaunchedtheR&DProgramme A3 AustrianAdvancedAutomotiveTechnology alreadyin 2002,coveringtheentireinnovationcyclefrombasicresearchto demonstrationprojects,education,mobilityofresearchersand internationalnetworking.a3focusesontechnology breakthroughsandnotincrementalimprovements,andstrives forsynergiesfrominterdisciplinaryco operationbetween industrial,universityandnon universityresearchandbetween suppliersandusersoftechnologiesinjointr&dprojects. LighthouseprojectsareanotherinstrumentusedbytheBMVIT insupportingthemarketintroductionofalternativepropulsion systems,throughfundinglargepilotanddemonstrationprojects, optimisingtechnologiesunderreal timeconditions,providing proofofsuccessfuloperationandpreparingthepublicfor technologicalchange. TheEUunderpinsitspolicygoalsinasimilarwaybyfunding R&Dinthe7 th FrameworkProgramme,andthroughpartnership withindustryandresearchinstitutionsinformulatingthe StrategicResearchAgenda(SRA)oftheEUTechnology PlatformsERTRACandBIOFUELS.TheInternationalEnergy Agency(IEA)supportsglobalR&Dco operationsfora sustainableenergyandtransportsysteminitsimplementing Agreements AdvancedMotorFuels and Bioenergy. Thisbookletconstitutesthesecondvolumeintheseries AustrianTechnologicalExpertiseinTransport,providinga comprehensiveoverviewofr&dprojectsandresearch institutionsinthefieldoftransportfuelsinaustria,rangingfrom A3andlighthouseprojectsfundedbytheBMVITuptoEUand internationalprojectswithaustrianparticipants.sincethefirst volumeofthisseriesofbookletshascoveredthetheme HydrogenandFuelCells (publishedindecember2007), projectsforhydrogenasenergycarrierhavebeenomittedfrom thepresentbookletonfuels.electricityasanotherenergycarrier foralternativepropulsioninelectricvehicleswillbecoveredin oneofthenextbookletsofthisseriesonhybridvehicles, batterytechnologiesandelectronicsteeringcontrol.thereview articlewhichfollowsprovidesacompactandbalancedanalysis oftechnologicaltrendsandacomparisonoffueloptions,before presentingtheresultsofa3andeuprojects. 7

8 > TRANSPORT FUELS: A CRUCIAL FACTOR AND DRIVER TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY > VEGETABLE OIL AND BIODIESEL > BIOETHANOL > SECOND-GENERATION FUELS THE WAY AHEAD > BIOGAS FROM ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AS VEHICLE FUEL REQUIREMENTS AND APPLICATION > COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS CNG > LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS LPG > HYDROGEN CARBON FREE FUEL > ELECTRICAL ENERGY AS FUTURE VEHICLE FUEL > TRENDS IN ENGINE DEVELOPMENT > CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thecreationofabrochureofthissizeandcomplexitycouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithoutthe gracioushelp,collegialcooperation,andveryhardworkofmanypeople.atthispointwewanttothank allthosepeoplefortheirworkandcontributionstothebrochure. Ahrer,Werner Amon,Thomas Böhme,Walter Conte,Valerio Dorda,Andreas Egger,Bernhard Geringer,Bernhard Hannesschläger,Michael Herndler,Stefan Hofbauer,Hermann Jogl,Christian Klell,Manfred Lichtblau,Günther Noll,Margit Pirker,Franz Pollak,Kurt Prenninger,Peter Rathbauer,Josef Rudolf,Markus Seidinger,Peter Spitzer,Josef Urbanek,Michael Winter,Ralf Wörgetter,Manfred PROFACTORGmbH UniversityofNaturalResourcesandAppliedLifeSciences, Vienna DivisionofAgriculturalEngineering OMVAG arsenalresearch BMVIT/A3PS A3PS ViennaUniversityofTechnology InstituteforInternalCombustionEngines andautomotiveengineering EnergieparkBrucka.d.Leitha A3PS ViennaUniversityofTechnology InstituteofChemicalEngineering HyCentAResearchGmbH HyCentAResearchGmbH Umweltbundesamt arsenalresearch arsenalresearch OMVAGCorporateStrategy AVLListGmbH FJ BLTWieselburg MagnaSteyrFahrzeugtechnikAG&CoKG OMVGasInternationalGmbH JOANNEUMRESEARCH ViennaUniversityofTechnology InstituteforInternalCombustionEngines andautomotiveengineering Umweltbundesamt FJ BLTWieselburg 8 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

9 REVIEW ARTICLE ON TRANSPORT FUELS 9

10 TRANSPORT FUELS: A CRUCIAL FACTOR AND DRIVER TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Againstthebackgroundofimminentclimatechangeand increasingdependenceonenergyresourcesfrompolitically unstableregions,policymakersaresettingambitiousgoalsto reducegreenhousegasemissions,includingthosefromthe transportsector.toreachtheseambitioustargets,awiderange oftechnicaloptionsisavailable.changesinthepropulsion systemrequirecloseco operationbetweenthefuelindustryand powertraindevelopers.apartfromcompressednaturalgas (CNG)andliquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),alternativefuels includesustainablefuelssuchasbiodiesel,ethanol,biogasand second generationfuels,aswellasadvancedfuelslikedimethyl ether(dme).besidesthefurtherimprovementofexisting combustiontechnologies,r&disfocussingoncombustion processesforalternativefuelsandnewpropulsionconcepts suchasmonovalentgasengines,hybridandpureelectric vehicles,aswellasfuelcellcars.theobjectiveofallthese developmentsistoimprovedrivetrainefficiencyandtoreduce emissionsofpollutantsandgreenhousegases. Sustainablefuelscanbeproducedusingalargevarietyof differentfeedstock.ingeneral,distinctionscanbemadebetween oilcrops(rape,sunflower,etc.),starchorsugarcrops(maize, grain,sugarbeet,sugarcan,etc.),lignocelluloses(straw,wood, miscanthus,cornstover,etc.)andotherrawmateriallikeorganic residuesandwasteproducts(manure,sludge,animalfat,etc.). DirectCO 2 emissionsfromvehiclesrunonsustainablefuelsare generallypresumedtobezero.theexhaustgascontainsthe amountofco 2 thatwaspreviouslycapturedfromthe atmospherebyphotosynthesis.sincefuelproductionisitselfa sourceofco 2 emissions,theactualimpactontheclimatemust beassessedtotakeaccountofthoseeffects.contingent activities,suchascultivatingtherawmaterial(fertilizer,tractors), alltransportationmovementsandprocessingthereforeneedto bemonitoredforemissionstogainanobjectivecomparison.to takeaccountoftheseso called upstreameffects,allactivities necessarytoprovidethefuelatthefillingstationneedtobe included.calculationsareimplementedusinglifecycle assessments.theamountoftheseemissionsisstrongly influencedbythegivencircumstances.ifcultivationiscarried outinanecologicalway,iftransportdistancesareshortandif processingusesgreenelectricity,totalemissionstendtobe low.bestresultscanbeobtainedwhenthefeedstockconsists ofresidualproductsandwasteproducts,becausemany upstreamemissionscanbefactoredout. Convertingthequantityofalternativefueltoamileagefigureis realisedbylookingattheindividualenergydensitiesofthe differentfuels.thisisessential,especiallywhenaccountingfor theactualsubstitutionlevelofsustainablefuels.theenergy densityofbiodieselisabout8%lowerthanthatoffossildiesel; theenergydensityofethanolisaboutonethirdbelowthatof fossilpetrol.thereforeinordertosubstitutefossilfuelsandto meetconventionalpropulsionefficiency,higherquantitiesof sustainablefuelareneeded. Purevegetableoilisobtainedbypressingoilseedsoroilfruits fromoilcrops;subsequentlyitcaneitherbeuseddirectlyor processedtoobtainbiodieselthroughesterification.wastefat (usedcookingoil,animalfat)canalsobeusedasfeedstockfor biodieselproduction,afterappropriatetreatment.toguarantee sounduseofpurevegetableoilandbiodiesel,giventhattheir fuelparametersdivergefromdieselasusedtoday,enginesand vehiclesneedtobeadapted,particularlywhenusingalternative fuelsinhighconcentrationsorinpureform.alternatively, vegetableoilcanbetreatedwithhydrogentoobtain hydrogenatedvegetableoil,whichcanbeusedindieselengines withoutanyspecialrequirements. Theethanolcurrentlyavailableisproducedfromstarchand sugar,originatingfromstarchandsugarcrops,wherethestarch isfirstmetabolisedintosugarbyenzymaticdecompositionand thesugarsubsequentlyconvertedtoethanolthroughalcohol fermentation.lignocellulosebiomassrepresentsanother potentialfeedstockforfutureethanolproduction.theabilityto uselignocellulosesrequiresspecificenzymes,incombination withspecialpre treatmentstofacilitatethebreakdownof cellulosematerialintoitssugarcomponents,inordertoferment ittoethanol.useofpureethanolrequiresspecialengineand vehicleadaptation. Besidesusingbiodieselandethanolinpureform,which requirescertainvehicleadaptations,theyareusedasblends withconventionalfuels,atupto5%byvolume.duetothe smallproportionofsustainablefuelsintheseblends,thereisno needtoadapteitherengineorvehicle.thisfactmeansthatthe majorityofsustainablefuelusedinthetransportsectoris distributedasablend,owingtothelackofasuitablevehicle infrastructure.e85,anethanolbasedfuelcontaining85% ethanol,isofferedasfuelforsocalledflexiblefuelvehicles (FFVs),whichcanbeoperatedwithfuelsupto85%ethanol. 10 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

11 Sustainablefuelsareusuallygroupedintofirst andsecondgenerationfuels.allsustainablefuelsproducedcommercially usingconventionaltechniquesandanyfeedstockapartfrom lignocellulosesandcellulosesbelongtothefirstgroup;these includeforexamplebiodieselfromoilseedsandethanolfrom cornorsugarbeet.besidesbeingdefinedthroughtheir feedstockofwood orstraw basedrawmaterial,secondgenerationfuelsareoftendefinedbytheirspecialproduction conditions,whichofferthefurtherpossibilityofusingtheentire plantforfuelproductionandthereforeincreasingthepotential amountoffeedstock(acreageperformance). Biogasisgeneratedwhenorganicmaterialfermentsunder anaerobicconditions(withoutoxygen).organicresidues,plant partswhicharepresentlydiscardedaswaste,aswellasall energycropsarepotentialrawmaterial.thecrudegasproduced therebyneedsfurthertreatment,calledupgrading,toimprove thequalitybeforeitcanbeusedastransportfuel.biogasused asatransportfuelmainlyconsistsofmethanegaswithalow contentofimpuritiessuchassulphurorcarbondioxide,andis thereforechemicallysimilartocng. CNGhasalreadybeeninuseastransportfuelformanyyears. Ithasabout25%lowerCO 2 emissionsthanpetrol,significant loweremissionofpollutantsandnoparticulateemissions. InAustria,theconstructionofanationwidegas fuelling infrastructureisinprogress. BiogasandCNGcanbedistributedthroughtheexistingnatural gasgridtoregulargas fillingstations,compressedandsoldonsite.ifnogasgridisavailable,additionallogisticisneeded. LPGisalsoinuseastransportfuel,especiallyinbusfleets(e.g. invienna).itoffersadvantagessuchaslowerco 2 andpollutants emissionsandischeaperthanstandardpetrolordieselfuel. Agriculturallandavailableforenergycropproductionbeing limited,theyieldofsustainablefuelperacreageisan appropriateassessmentparameterforevaluatingsustainable fuels.furthermoreithastobeborneinmindthattheproduction ofsustainablefuelscompeteswithsupplyoffoodandfeed,as wellasotherinterestslikethoseofthepaperandwood industry.itisevidentthattoday sfuelconsumptioncannotbe coveredentirelywithsustainablefuels. GenerallytheyofferadvantagessuchasareductioninCO 2 emissionsandloweremissionsofpollutants,butthelong term goalisanemission freetransportsystem.thesearereasons whysustainablefuelsareperceivedtobepartofthesolution, i.e.asanintermediatestepinmovingtowardsthelong term introductionofvehiclespoweredbyelectricpowerorhydrogen. Atthemoment,gradualelectrificationofmotorvehiclesis alreadyunderway.so calledhybridvehiclesarecombining combustionenginesandelectricmotorsinordertoimprove vehicleefficiency.forbothelectricvehiclesandhydrogenpoweredvehicles,furtherimprovementsrelatingtobattery technology,hydrogenstorageandfuelcellsstillneedtobe realisedinordertoachievemarketmaturity.whileneither technologyitselfcausesdirectemissions,itisnecessaryto focusontheenergyproductionsidetoo.iffuelproductionuses electricityoriginatingfromrenewablesources,theoverall balanceofemissionsispromising;ifusingelectricityfrom conventionalthermalpowercrops,however,electricand hydrogen poweredvehiclesperformsimilarlytoexistinghybrid vehiclesintermsofenergyefficiencyandgreenhousegas emissions. Thefollowingchapters,writtenbyexpertsfromAustrian companiesandr&dinstitutions,willguideyouthroughthe topicofexistingandfuturealternativetransportfuels. Thechaptersgiveanoverviewofthesocial,technicaland economicaspectsofdifferentalternativefuels.advantages anddisadvantagesofvariousoptionsarediscussed,andyou willfindinformationoncurrenttrendsinthefuelandautomotive industries.alltogether,thechaptersprovideaninteresting insightintotheimportanttopicofalternativefuels helpingto enhancetransportefficiencyandtoreduceemissions. 11

12 VEGETABLE OIL AND BIODIESEL VEGETABLE OIL FOR DIESEL ENGINES RudolfDieselhimselfwantedtorunhisenginesusingvegetable oil.scientificinvestigationswerecarriedoutintorunning enginesonvegetableoilbeforeworldwarii.theoilcrisisin 1973revivedinterest,andresearchwasconductedaroundthe worldintotheuseofvegetableoilinconventionaldiesel engines.however,thetendencyofvegetableoiltocoking significantlylimitedrunningenginesusingpurevegetableoil. StartingfromCanada,thewidespreadplantingofrapehasbeen asuccessfuldevelopment.rapeisaplantsuitedtoregions withatemperateclimate,andinnortherngermanytheyieldis 3to4t/haofseed.Theseedcanbeprocessedusingproven technologyinindustrialplantsandinsmall scaleunitsat relativelylowcost.asinglehectareissufficienttoproduce 2tonnesofproteinfeedforanimalnutritionand1.3tonnesof rapeseedoil.throughgoodfarmingpractice,breedingmeasures andreducedexpenditureonmanureandpesticides,alongside advancesinfarmingengineering,ithasprovedpossibleto reducethecostsofrapeproductionby70%in35years. However,globallyarangeoffurtheroilsandfatsarealsobeing consideredasrawmaterials.forinstance,palmoiliseconomically attractiveowingtoitshighyields(upto7t/ha),butiscalledinto questiononecologicalandsocialgrounds.thejatrophaplant promisessustainableproduction,particularlyinaridregions,buta wholeagriculturalproductionsystemmustbedeveloped. Tousevegetableoilasafuel,twostrategiescanbeenvisaged. Enginessuitableforrunningonvegetableoilcanserveniche markets,orifthepropertiesofoilareadaptedtothe requirementsofexistingenginesthewholedieselfuelmarket canbeopenedup. BIODIESEL isproducedthroughalcoholysisofvegetableoiloranimalfats. Atriglyceridemoleculeisusedwiththreemoleculesofmethanol toproducethreemoleculesofmethylesterandoneglycerine molecule.overthepastdecade,simpleprocesseswithlow energydemand,hightransformationratesandgoodproduct qualityweredevelopedtoproducemethylesters( FAME = fattyacidmethylester ; RME =rapeoilmethylester). Transesterificationimprovesthedieselenginecharacteristics. Viscosityisreduced,thetendencytocokingiscompatiblewith therangefoundindieselfuels,andthecetanenumberand lubricityarebetterthanthatoffossildiesel.extensive investigationsduringthe1990sdemonstratedthatbiodieselis suitableformarket viable,series manufacturedvehicles.groups ofresearchersinaustria(ingraz,wieselburgandvienna)were world leadinginthisfield.withnationalstandardisationin Austria,forthefirsttimeanywhereintheworldthe preconditionswereestablishedforregulatedtradingof biodiesel. Since2004,EN14214hasspecifiedtherequirementsfor biodieselasapurefuelandasamixcomponentaddedtofossil dieselfuel.since2006,4.4%biodieselhasbeenadmixedto fillingstationfuelinaustria.theuseofpurebiodieselrequires carmanufacturerapproval.althoughafter1990therewas successinsecuringapprovalforrunningonpurebiodiesel,the automotiveindustryremainshesitant.indevelopingexhaustgas filtertechnology,noaccountwastakenofthespecific characteristicsofbiodiesel.carmanufacturersareaccordingly limitingtheadmixturetoa5%level,anda7to10%limitis underdiscussion.approvalsforrunningonpurebiodieselare onlytobebroughtinforheavyutilityvehicles. 12 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

13 RUNNING ON VEGETABLE OIL requiresmodificationstothevehicleandtoengines.onthe developmentside,designmeasuresneedtobetakeninrespect oftheinjectionengineering,thecombustionchamberandinthe designofpistons,pistonringsandvalves.toaccelerate developmentthegermanstandardisationorganisationhas drawnupatentativedin standardforvegetableoil.thecostsof developmentandthesmallmarkethaveprovedobstaclestothe introductionofvegetableoiltechnology.toovercomethis hurdle,thegermanministryforagriculturehasfinanceda demonstrationproject.over100re equippedtractorshavebeen operatedforseveralyearsusingvegetableoil,withmonitoring byscientists. OverseenbyscientistsatFJBLT,aprojectsupportedbyAgrar PlusisunderwayinAustria.WithassistancefromtheMinistry ofagriculture,forestry,theenvironmentandwater ManagementandfromtheRegionalGovernmentsofLower Austria,UpperAustriaandBurgenland,andunderthe Kommunalkreditlocalauthorityloanscheme,acomprehensive monitoringprojectisbeingcarriedoutintothepracticaluseof 35re equippedtractorsandtheproductionofvegetableoilin smallproductionunitsovertheperiodend2003 mid2008. Theaimistoshowunderwhichconditionstheuseofvegetable oilasatractorfuelonre equippedseries manufacturedtractors ispossible,andwhatrisksarisefromthis. Toassesstheoilquality,samplesaretakenandanalysed periodicallyfromtheoilmills,storagetanksandvehiclefuel tanks.inthefirstyear,theintroductionofqualityassurance measureshasseensuccessincomplyingwiththerequirements ofthedintentativestandard. BuildingontheexperiencesinGermany, two tanksystems arealsobeingused.thesetractorsarerunusingfossildieselat lowloadandwhenincoldcondition,andathighloadusingpreheatedvegetableoil,therebyreducingengineoildilutionand carbonbuilt uponengineparts.poweroutputwhenrunningon dieselandrapeseedoilisroughlythesame.thefuel consumptionissomewhathigherwhenrunningonrapeseedoil thanondiesel.intermsofemissions,rapeseedoiloffers improvementsincoandhydrocarbonemissions,withworse performanceintermsofno X emissions. Fortheengineoil,alltractorsusedproductsfromaGerman manufacturerwithrelevantexperience.thecustomaryoil changeperiodsweremaintained.theaveragerapeseedoil contentofthesamplesfromtheengineoilchangesonatwotanksystemwas4.6%,whichwaswellbelowthe correspondinglevelof12.5%onone tanksystems.thefinal investigationshavebeenunderwaysinceautumn2007.for these,powerbehaviourandemissionsarebeingassessedon thetestbenchandthedegreeofwearinvestigatedby dismantlingtheengines.theprogrammewillberoundedoffin mid2008withacomprehensivereport. 13

14 BIOETHANOL Toconserveresourcesoffossilmineraloilrawmaterials,andto improvetheco 2 balancesheet,increasinguseneedstobe madeofsustainablefuels.theuseofbiodieselisalready familiartousandisstate of the art,whereassubstitute biogenousfuelfortheottoengineisonlynowbeginningtobe usedineurope,intheformofethanol.currentlythesharefor sustainablefuelinaustriaisaround5%,althoughthislevelis settobeincreasedprogressivelytoatleast10%. ETHANOL FOR OTTO ENGINES Ethanolassourceofenergywasalreadyconsideredasa possiblefuelatthetimethecarwasinvented.thestarting productforfermentationisrawmaterialcontainingsugarsand starches.whereasplantscontainingsugar(sugarbeet, sugarcane)canbefermenteddirectly,ingrainthestarchisfirst convertedtosugarthroughenzymeaction.thefermentation producesaproductwithanalcoholcontentof18%,andusing distillationthisdegreeofconcentrationisincreasedto90%.for admixingwithpetrol,inafurtherstepthealcoholcontentis increasedtocloseon100%. EthanolhasexcellentcharacteristicsfortheOttoengine,asa purefuelandwhenmixedwithconventionalpetrol.currently, 5%ethanolisadmixedwithpetrolinAustria.Sincetheenergy densityofpureethanolislow,enginesneedtobeadaptedto usepureethanol. ResearchworkatViennaUniversityofTechnologyhasshown thathigherlevelsofefficiencywithhigherperformanceand loweremissionscanbeachievedusingethanol.vehicleswhich canbedrivenonpetrol ethanolmixesofupto85%(flexiblefuel vehicles FFV)areonthemarketinSweden,BrazilandtheUS, strongeffortstoimplementsuchtechnologiesaremadeinan E85programbysomecompaniesinAustriatoo. TheBrazilian ProalcoolProgramme wasthebiggestmarket launchprogrammeintheworld.asearlyas1997,273million tonnesofsugarbeetwereharvestedoutofwhich13.7million m3offuelwereproduced.ethanolisprimarilyusedinmixtures, andsince1999a26%admixturehasbeenused.inrecent years,automobilecompanieshavelaunchedffvsonthe Brazilianmarket,togreatsuccess.Now,however,theUSAhas overtakenbrazil.in2007,tosafeguardfuelsupply,atotalof7 billiongallonsofethanolwasproducedin115plantsfrommaize andgrain,andtheannualincreasefrom2007to2008was38%. FUTURE POTENTIAL FOR ACQUISITION OF FUEL Theincreasinguseofethanolasasupplementtoorsubstitute forfossilfuelsis,however,becomingincreasinglycontroversial today.forinstance,triggeredbytheextensivecultivationof suitableplants,therearefearsofdisruptiontotheecosystem andethicalreservationsagainstusingplantssuchasgrain, maizeorsunflowersforenergy,giventhatthesecropsare simultaneouslythebasisforfoodproducts.nevertheless,the so calledfirst generationfuelshavealreadyachievedglobal importancetoday.theusaandbrazilproducewellover30 milliontonnesofethanolannually. Bycontrast,inthesecond generationfuels(thedevelopmentof whichisbeingworkedonbyresearchersatpresent)thefruitis tobeusedforfoodproductionandonlytheresidual componentsor waste fromthecommercially grownplantis tobeusedtoproduceenergy.thiswouldopenupthewaytoa sustainablefurtherincreaseintheshareofbiogenousproducts infuel. ADAPTING ENGINES TO RUN ON ETHANOL Ifethanolistobeadmixedinhigherproportions,thenthe engineneedstobeadaptedaccordingly.dependingonthemix ratio,ahigheroctanerating,alowerthermalvalueandincreased vaporisationheatcanbeobtained.giventheclimaticconditions ineurope,admixingupto85%ethanolissensible.thisrequires adaptedenginemanagementparameterssuchasinjection volume,ignitiontimingetc.vehiclesknownasffvsareadapted torunonanypreferredmixratio,upto85%ethanolinthe petrol.forenginesworkingwithahighethanolcontentinthe fuel,oneoftherequirementsisthatthevalveseatsneedtobe manufacturedintoughermaterial,sincethestressissomewhat increasedandthelubricatingpropertiesarelower.alcoholresistantmaterialsmustbeusedforfuellinesandseals. 14 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

15 OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR USE IN ENGINES Thefutureincreaseduseofalternativefuelsistherefore predicatedonthedevelopmentofadaptedengines.thefull potentialofethanoltoincreaseefficiencylevelscanonlybefully exploitedbyoptimisingtheenginetothespecialcharacteristics ofthefuel.asanexample,mentionshouldbemadehereofthe higherknockrating,whichallowsthecompressionratiotobe increased.thisresultsinanincreaseinthermalefficiency.this isnotpossibleusingconventionalottoenginefuel,dueto knocking.knockingcomesaboutif,atfullload,pocketsofthe fuel airmixtureignitespontaneouslysubsequenttothespark plugignition,duetothehighpressureandthetemperature.this isassociatedwithextremelyhighstressesontheenginewhich, iftheypersistfortoolong,canresultindestruction. Movingtheignitionpointlaterguardsagainstthisstress,butit worsensthelevelofefficiency.thisisnotnecessaryatallwith ethanol,oronlytoasignificantlylowerextent.thismeansthat usingethanolnotonlybringsbenefitsintermsofefficient conversionofenergy,buttheearlycombustionalsomeansthat theexhaustgastemperatureissignificantlylowerthanwhen runningonpetrol.theoutcomeofthisprocessissignificantly lowerneedforenrichmenttocoolthecatalystathighloads, meaningthatadditionalfuelissaved.futureethanolengineswill comeclosetomoderndieselenginesintermsoftheirlevelof efficiencyatfullload. However,usingethanolalsobringsaboutdisadvantages.The highvaporisationheatandthehighboilingpointofethanolcan leadtodifficultieswithcoldstarting,particularlyatverylow ambienttemperatures.thisgeneratesmajorchallenges,in termsofinjectionstrategyandtheengineapplication,inorderto vaporisesufficientfuelwhenstarting.onepossiblesolutionis multipleinjectionpercycleondirect injectionengines.thiscan improvethevaporisationpatternandlowertheminimumcold starttemperature.inaddition,thelowercalorificvalueofethanol comparedwithpetrol(aroundathirdlower)meansthatthereis agreatervolumetricfuelrequirement.whilstthismeansshorter periodsbetweenfuellingstops,thelowerpricemeansthat therearenoadditionalcostsfortheconsumer.inadditiontothe advantagesinfuelmanufacturing,therearealsolowerco 2 emissionsfromrunningtheengine,duetotheincreasedlevelof efficiencywhenrunningonethanol. Iftheoptionistakenforflexibleoperationusinganypreferred mixturesofethanolupto85%andpetrol,asforexamplein FFVs,compromisesmustnecessarilybemade,sincetheengine mustalsoworkwiththelowerknockratingofconventionalotto enginefuel.inallcases,developmentsintermsofengine adjustmentsarecertainlyrequired,butnofundamentalnew designs. 15

16 SECOND-GENERATION FUELS THE WAY AHEAD Currentlyarangeofliquidandgassustainablefuelsarebeing producedandresearched;theyaremanufacturedusingvarious rawmaterialsandvariousprocesses.vegetableoil,biodiesel andethanolareavailableonthemarket,anindustrialplanthas beenconstructedtoproducehydrogenatedfuelsfromplantoils, theuseofbiogasandvegetableoilinvehiclesisbeing demonstrated,ademonstrationplanttoproducefischer Tropsch (FT)dieselfrombio synthesisgasisgoingintooperation, seriousconsiderationisbeinggiventobutanolanddme (dimethylether),processesfordirectliquefactionarebeing announced,andstudiesareaddressingtheissueofhydrogen. Therawmaterialscanbesourcedasprincipalproductsand by productsofagricultureandforestry,butalsoascoupled productsfromindustryorasresidualmaterialsfromwaste management.inparticular,thelattercoveroilsandfatsof vegetableandanimalorigin,traditionalplantscontainingstarchor sugar,lignocelluloserawmaterialssuchaswood,strawand miscanthus,andalsoorganicresidualmaterialssuchasmanure andorganicwaste. Thepotentialfromsustainablefuelsfromdomesticraw materialsislimitedbythecompetitionforlandareawithfood andrawmaterials.inasustainablefuel orientedscenario,where keysocietaldemandsaresecuresupplyofhigh qualityfoodand maintaininganenvironmentfittolivein,by2020itwouldbe possibletogenerateupto1.4milliontoeofalternativefuels fromdomesticrawmaterials(e.g.160,000toebiodiesel, 120,000toeethanolfromplantscontainingsugarorstarch, 700,000toeFTfuelfromgasificationofwood,woodwasteand plantsfarmedasanenergycrop,and400,000to500,000toe biogasfromwasteandplantsgrownasenergysources).the fueldemandin2020isestimatedat0.7milliontoepetroland 7.4milliontoedieselfuel,witharound80%ofthisbeing consumeddomesticallywithinaustria.thismeansthat,using theuppermostassumptions,22%ofowndemandcanbemet fromprimarydomesticproduction. ETHANOL FROM LIGNOCELLULOSE Toextendthebasisofrawmaterials,forsomeconsiderable timeinvestigationshavebeenpursuedintothepulpingand saccharificationoflignocelluloserawmaterials.theraw materialsbeingexaminedarewood,bark,straw,high yield energyplantingsuchasmiscanthus,andalsolignocellulose wastematerialssuchasusedpaper.theareasoffocusin researcharemechanicalpulping,hydrolysis,theproductionof enzymesandthegeneticmodificationofmicro organisms,and theoverallprocessitself.highconversionratesforcelluloseand hemicellulosearesought,asisthecomprehensiveuseofallbyproducts. The RoadmapforCellulosicEthanol fromtheusdepartment ofenergyisshowingthewayinwhichby203030%offuel demandintheusacanbemetfromlignocellulose.the strategyisreliantonwholecropmaize,butgrassesgrownover severalyearssuchasswitchgrassarebeinginvestigated.the researchisbeingconductedin10nationallaboratoriesandat 200universities.Aseriesofcompaniesaresettingup demonstrationplants,withpublicassistance.incanada,the companyiogenisproducingethanolfromstrawina demonstrationplant.handinhandwiththemarketlaunchof ethanol,flexfuelvehiclesarecomingontothemarket. Europe,too,isengagedinresearch:foranumberofyears, Swedenhasbeenoperatingapilotplantusingsoftwood; Denmarkisbuildingademonstrationplantforstraw;andthe EuropeanCommissionissupportingbasicresearchviatheNILE Project.Austrianresearchersareusingsimilarapproachesin seekingdifferentobjectives:withfundingfromaustria s FactoryofTomorrow [ FabrikderZukunft ]Federalresearch programmeandfundsfromtheupperaustrialandgovernment, the GreenRefinery isresearchingthelinkedproductionof lacticacidasanindustrialrawmaterialandbiogasasanenergy carrier,onapilotscale. Manufacturecaninvolvemechanical,chemical,biochemical, thermo chemicalorpetrochemicalprocesses.examplesare pressing,esterification,fermentation,gasification,gas synthesis andhydrogenation.thecombinationofprocessesandraw materialsproducesarangeofpossibleoptions.below,the probableoptionsasconsideredtodayaredescribedinfuller detail. 16 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

17 HYDROGENATED VEGETABLE OIL AND INNOVATIVE BIODIESEL UnderthenameNextBtL,VTTinFinlandhascollaboratedwitha Finnishmineraloilcompanytodevelopahydrogenatingprocess toproducehydrocarbonsfromfatsandoilsoriginatingfrom plantsandanimals.forthis,therawmaterialistreatedwith hydrogen,undertheinfluenceofametalliccatalyst,atbetween 250and350 Candatambientpressure.Theprocessproduces mainlystraight chainhydrocarbonsintheboilingpointrangeof 180to350 C,andasaby productco 2 andwater.theproduct exhibitsfavourablediesel enginecharacteristicsandcanbe mixedinanyconcentrationsdesiredwithfossildiesel.aninitial industrialplantwentintooperationattheendof2007infinland, withfurtherplantsplannedineuropeandthefareast. Asimilarprocesscanbeappliedinmineraloilrefineries.For this,oilsandfatssourcedfromplantsandanimalsare processedtogetherwithmineraloil basedintermediatesand hydrogeninexistingpetrochemicalplants. TheR&Dworkonbiodieselisconcentratingonoptimising processes,e.g.byincreasingtheyieldandtheuseofbyproducts,withparticularimportancebeingattachedtothehighvalueuseofglycerine.intermsofitsapplication,themainfocus isontheselectionoffattyacidspectrawithfavourabledieselenginecharacteristics. Thereisacommoninterestinthesearchfornewfuelsandin optimisingrawmaterialschains.thisrequiressocietal, ecologicalandeconomicrequirementstobebroughtinto harmony.onehighlypromisingapproachappearstobethe cultivationofthejatrophaplantinariddevelopingcountries. FUELS FROM SYNTHESIS GAS Low moleculargasesaresuitableforsynthesesofalltypes. Givenafreechoiceofsynthesisgases,itispossibletoproduce awiderangeofproducts,andespeciallyfuelswithaspecificallysoughtcomposition.synthesisgascanbeobtainedthrough thermalgasificationofbiomass. Austrianresearchersholdaleadingpositionworldwideinterms ofgasificationofbiomass.inthedemonstrationplantin Güssing,researchershavesucceeded throughresearch programmesrangingovermanyyearsandestablishedona broadfooting indevelopingamarket maturetechnologywhich istheenvyofinternationalexpertstheworldover. Bio SNG,syntheticnaturalgasfrombiomass,canbeproduced usingarelativelysimpleprocess.aspartoftheeuproject BioSNG,ademonstrationplantfortheproductionofsynthetic methaneiscurrentlyunderconstructioningüssing,andsetto gointooperationinsummer2008.theplantcomprisesagas purificationsystem,amethanationunittoconverth 2 andcoto CH4andH 2 O,andthegastreatmentplanttobringitupto naturalgasquality.theplantobtainstheproductgasfromthe existingbiomasspowerstationandwillproduce100m3/hof methaneinnaturalgasquality.thisistheequivalentofapower of1mw.thegasproducedisusedinanaturalgasfilling stationandisbeingtestedinpracticaluse.duringthepilotscale study,a65%levelofefficiencyingasproductionwasachieved. Astheresidualheatisusedintheplant,anoverallefficiency levelof85%isanticipated. Concreteplansforplantsofthistypearealreadyunderwayin SwitzerlandandSweden,andinterestisalsocomingfrom France,GermanyandAustria. Methanolsynthesishasbeencarriedoutonamajorengineering scalesince1928.usingcarbonmonoxide,carbondioxideand hydrogenandwiththeaidofcatalystsatrelativelylow temperatures,methanolandwaterareformedinanexothermic reaction.methaneandhigherhydrocarbonsareformedin secondaryreactions.todate,methanolfrombiomasshasonly beeninvestigatedforreactionkineticsandinthelaboratory,and pilotordemonstrationplantshavenotbeenconstructed.>> 17

18 Fischer TropschfuelsynthesiswasdevelopedinGermany shortlyafterthefirstworldwar.carbonmonoxideand hydrogenareusedassynthesisgas.thegascanbeproduced fromcoal,naturalgasorbiomass.duringworldwarii, significantquantitiesofftfuelwereproducedingermany.due tothefuelembargo,thecompanysasolinsouthafricabuilta coal operatedindustrialplantwhichhasbeenrunning successfullyfordecades.itproducesliquidpetroleumgas, petrolandheavyfractionswhichareonwardprocessedusing petrochemicalprocesses(ctl=coaltoliquid). Germanindustryisputtingitsfaithinthe FromSynfuelto Sunfuel strategy( VonSynfuelzuSunfuel"),withsynfuel referringtofuelsfromfossilsynthesisgases,andsunfuelthose producedfromgasificationofbiomass(btl=biomasstoliquid). Thedieselfractionoftheintermediateproducthasoutstanding dieselenginecharacteristics.btlallowsforareductionin emissionsofparticles,hydrocarbons,carbonmonoxideand nitrogenoxides.thechorenindustriesgmbhisworking intensivelyonabtlprocess.pilotscaletestinghasbeen conductedsuccessfully,andademonstrationplantinfreiberg (Germany)isshortlytogointooperation. BIO-CNG: NATURAL GAS AND BIOGAS Naturalgasiscomposedalmostentirelyofmethane,whichis alreadybeingusedinpressurisedcontainersinconsiderable quantitiesinnaturalgasvehicles.infrastructuresforsupplying vehiclesarebeingintroduced.vehiclemanufacturershave developednaturalgasvehicles,andfurthermodelswillcome ontothemarket. LIQUEFACTION OF SOLID BIOMASSES Thehydrothermalupgradingprocess(HTU)developedbyShell aimstoreducetheoxygeninbiomassbyreleasingco 2. Woodchipsareusedastherawmaterial,anddryingisnot necessary.theprocessoperatesat200bar,andforgood reactionsprocessoptimisationsarenecessary.theproductis solidorliquidandsuitableasarawmaterialforfuelproduction usingpetrochemicalprocesses.theworkstodatehavenotled toanymorefar reachingimplementation. Incatalyticlow pressuredepolymerisation,thesolidbiomassis heatedtogetherwithacatalystinaliquidheatingmedium.by selectingsuitableprocessconditions(temperature,pressure, catalyst),liquidsareproducedwithsimilarcharacteristicsto fossilfuels. Pyrolysisisthetermusedtodescribetheanaerobic carbonisationofbiomass,duringwhichsolid,liquidandgas componentsareformed.pyrolysisproducesaheavy,tarryand acidicliquidwithahighwatercontent,ahighcontentofsolids (coke,ash)andacalorificvaluesimilartothatofwood.flash pyrolysis,attemperaturesbetween500and800 C,suppliesa goodyieldofliquidcomponents.pyrolysisproductswithahigh proportionofcokearetermed slurry.bothproductsarewellsuitedtothermalgasificationtogeneratesynthesisgas. Biogascomprisesaround60%methaneand40%carbon dioxide,andisproducedfromorganicwasteandagricultural biomass(suchasmaizesilage,grassetc.)usinganaerobic fermentationinawateryenvironment.purifiedbiogascanbe fedintothenaturalgasgrid,andinfrastructuresfornaturalgas vehiclescouldbeused.austriaissupportingtheintroductionof amethanegassystemfortransportusethroughbio CNG projects. 18 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

19 BIO-HYDROGEN Hydrogenasanenergysourceforfuelcelldrivesisbeing researchedintensivelyworldwideduetothepossibilityof emissions freevehicles.hydrogencanbeproducedinasimilar mannertobiogas,usingabio engineeringrouteorthrough thermalgasification.hydrogen basedtransportsystemsarenot expectedearlierthan2030,duetothehighcostofr&dand duetotheneedforentirelynewvehicleandlogisticssystems. WHICH IS THE BEST? Theanswerdependsontheobjectives,theframework conditionsandthedecisionsalreadytaken.asseentoday,the followingdevelopmentappearssensible: By2020,market viablesustainablefuelsaresettodominatethe scene.europehascommitteditselftobiodieselfromrapeand ethanolfromgrainandsugarbeet.theargumentsinfavourof ethanolarethehigheryieldsperhectare,andforbiodieselthe morefavourableenergybalancesheet.theaimsofthebiofuel Directivecanbeachievedthroughthis,withthelimitingfactors beingtheavailablelandareaandthemarketforproteinfeeds. NorthAmericaiscommittingtoethanolfrommaize,Brazilto ethanolfromsugarcane. Theargumentsforbiogasarethehighestyieldsperareaandthe simpleprocess,whichisalsosuitableforsmallerplants.using biogasintransportrequiresinvestmentstoexpandthegasgrid, topurifythegasandfeeditintothenetwork,andthe constructionoffillingstations.austriaissupportingthe expansionofinfrastructureandofmethanegasvehiclefleets throughbio CNGprojects. After2010,investmentsinnewsustainablefuelsarelikelyto showdividends.europeistrustingtosyntheticfuelsandnorth Americatoethanolfromlignocelluloserawmaterials.Both processesbuildoncheapwoodandstraw likerawmaterials. Sincewholeplantsandresidualmaterialssuchasstraware used,theavailablelandareascansupplygreatervolumes. Successdependsondevelopment,accesstocost favourable rawmaterialsandonthepolicyframework. ForEurope,itseemsrealistictoaimforavolumeof10to15% oftoday sfueldemandby2020.iftheexpectationsinresearch anddevelopmentoftransportsystemsaremet,intheperiod around2030thechangeoverwillbegintoothertransport systems,wheretherequirementwillsimilarlybefor sustainability. 19

20 BIOGAS FROM ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AS VEHICLE FUEL REQUIREMENTS AND APPLICATION Anaerobicdigestionofagriculturalwasteaswellasother organicwastesisawidespreadtechnologyinaustriaand Germanyforproducingbiogas.Besidestheusualconversionto heatandpower(chp),upgradingtonaturalgasqualityand feedingintothegasgridopensupnewpromisingareasof biogasusageasavehiclefuel.itcombinestheadvantagesof decentralizedfuelproductionwiththewellestablished infrastructureofthenaturalgasgrid. POTENTIAL OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION IN SUSTAINABLE FUEL-BASED BIOREFINERY CONCEPTS Todaythechallengeistoincreasethesustainabilityoffeedstock productionforfuelsbyusinginnovativesystems,processesand technologies.sustainablelandusestrategiesmustbe developedforsupplyofthebiomassfeedstockthatare compatiblewiththeclimatic,environmentalandsocio economic conditionsprevailingineachregion. Itisnecessarytopromotethetransitiontowards second generationbiofuels whilesupportingtheimplementationof currentlyavailablesustainablefuels,andfurthertowards biorefinerysystems whichwillbeproducingfromawider rangeoffeedstocks,includingwasteandlignocellulosebiomass (LA EUBiofuelsResearchWorkshop,FinalReport,SaoPaulo April2007). Currently,maize,sunflower,grassandsudangrassarethemost commonlyusedenergycrops.inthenearfuture,biogas productionfromenergycropswillincreaseandconsideration needstobegiventogrowingenergycropsinversatile, sustainablecroprotations.allactivitiesmustaimatsustainable useofthemultifacetedcultivatedlandscape.inaddition,more by productsfromtheagricultural,foodandenergyindustries needtobeintegratedintoaversatilebiogasproduction. Onehigher levelaimintheresearchonbiogasproductionisthe developmentofintegratedcroprotationsthatsupplyfoodand feed,producerawmaterials(e.g.oil,fat,organicacids)and energy(e.g.biogas,rme)andmaintainandfurtherpromotea multifacetedcultivatedlandscape.thisaimcanbeachievedvia thefollowingstrategies: Foodnon foodswitch:alternationofcropsfortheproduction offood,feed,rawmaterialandenergy Cascadeutilisation:differentpartsofthesamecropareused fordifferentoptions,e.g.starchfrommaizecornsandbiogas fromtheremainingmaizeplant Choiceoftheoptimumgenotypeandharvestingtime:e.g. energycropsmustproducehighbiomassyieldsandcontain optimumnutrientpatterns Sustainablefuel basedbiorefineryconceptsaresystemsin whichfood,rawmaterialsforindustry,andenergycanbe produced.theaimofsustainablebiorefineryconceptsisthe developmentofintegratedcroprotationsthatsatisfythe demandforfoodandfeedstuffs,aswellasproducingraw materials(e.g.oil,fat,organicacids)andenergy(e.g.biogasand ethanol). Combiningavarietyoftechnologiesachievesareductionin productioncostsandminimisesuseoffossilenergysources, whilstreusingexcessmaterialsandby products.thusthe ecologicalfootprintisminimised. Figure1showsthediagramofasustainablefuel oriented biorefinerysystem.biogasproductionisakeytechnologyfor thesustainableuseofagrarianbiomassasarenewableenergy sourcewithinfuelorientedbiorefinerysystems.biogascanbe producedfromawiderangeofenergycrops,animalmanures andorganicwastes.thusitoffersgreatflexibilityandcanbe adaptedtothespecificneedsofcontrastinglocationsandfarm managements. Figure1:Diagramofafuelorientedbiorefinerysystem 20 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

21 Thepotentialofbiogasproductionwillbegreaterthanassumed sofarwhencalculationsarebasedonsustainablesystems ratherthanonsinglecropdigestion. Thepossibilitytoproducebiogasfrombiogenouslocalbyproducts/residualproductsinAustria,attheleveloffivetoten percentoftotalvolumesofnaturalgas,andtomakeuseofit viatheexistinggasgrid,isalreadyinplace.itfollowsthat furtherplantssuchasthoseinbrucka.d.leithaandpucking willrapidlybeputinplace(notleastduetotheirhighenergy efficiency).biocng(withatleasta20%shareofbiogas)can thenbeexploitedtofurtherenhancethepositivecharacteristics ofcng(20%reductioninco 2,noengine relatedparticulates, nono x,etc.)toachievegreaterco 2 reductions. Particularlyintheareaoftransport,whereCO 2 emissionsin Austriahaveincreasedby86%since1990,theexistingpotential toachievereductionsneedstobeusedurgently.biogasisthe onlysecond generationfuelavailabletoday.achievingtheeu targets( 20%CO 2 by2020)requirescngandbiocngnow. firing data limits unit heatingvalue 10,7bis12,8 kwh/m3 Wobbe Index 13,3bis15,7 kwh/m3 relativedensity 0,55 0,65 components hydrocarbons:pointofcondensation Max.0 atoperatingpressure [ C] water:pointofcondensation Max. 8 Cat40bar [ C] Table1:qualityrequirementsofnaturalgasinAustria(ÖVGWG31) QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOGAS AS A VEHICLE FUEL BY DISTRIBUTION OVER THE GAS GRID Therequirementsofbiogasforgasgridinjectionaregivenin Table1,whichisthegeneralgasqualityregulationfollowingthe ÖVGWruleG31(ÖVGW Richtlinie ErdgasinÖsterreich. RichtlinieG31(Gasbeschaffenheit),ÖsterreichischerVerein fürdasgas undwasserfach,2001).forthespecialpurposeof biogasinjectiontheövgwruleg33hasbeenpublishedwhich definestheadditionalrequirementsforbiogas(övgw Richtlinie RegenerativeGase Biogas.RichtlinieG33, ÖsterreichischerVereinfürdasGas undwasserfach,2006). FollowingtheÖVGWruleG33biogashastoconsistofmore than96mol%methane. Theremovalofcarbondioxideandsulphuriccompoundsareof majorinterestinbiogasupgradingconnectedtospecial technologies.thetotalcostsforthesupplyofupgradedbiogas intothenaturalgasgridconsistofbiogasproduction,biogas conditioning,compressionandinjection.figure2 showstheupgradingofbiogasisamajorcostitem ofabout1 5ct/kWhdependingonthesizeofthe plantandthetechnologyselected.dependingonthe substrateandscaleoftheplant,overallcostsforthe injectionofbiogaspresentlyarebetween5and16 ct/kwh,withthelowestvaluesbeingcalculatedfor biogasfromwasteproductsandplantcapacitiesof 500Nm 3 /hinthisstudy.currentprojectstargeta costof4ct/kwhforupgradedbiogasfrom agriculturalby products. Legend: PSA Pressureswingadsorption DWW Waterscrubber BG Biogasplant Nm/hrawbiogasproduction G Substrate:Manure+10%energyplants N Substrate:Energyplants+10%manure B Substrate:Separatecollectedorganicwaste Colorsofspecificcosts: Lightblue Substrates Red Biogasconversion Green Upgradingcosts(waterscrubber) Grey Upgradingcosts(PSA) Darkblue Injectionandnetworkaccessfee Orange Totalcosts(caseorganicwaste) Figure2:Productioncosts(ct/kWh)ofinjectedbiogas 21

22 BIOGAS UPGRADING Basedontherequirementsoftheguidelinesandthenaturalgas operators,thecorrespondingpurificationtechnologyhastobe chosen.followingcomponentshavetobepurifiedtoreachthe claimedlimitvalues:hydrogensulphide(h 2 S),ammonia(NH3), water(h 2 O),siloxanes,carbondioxide(CO 2 ). ThecommoncommercialH 2 Spurifyingmethodsare Biotricklingfilterorbioscrubber(biologicaloxidation) Additionofferricchloridetothefermentationsubstrate (sulphideprecipitation) Impregnatedactivatedcarbon(catalyticoxidation) Ironoxideonsteelwool(chemicalsorption) Ironoxidepellets(chemicalsorption) Scrubberwithwater,organicsolventorcausticsoda (absorption) UTILISATION OF BIOGAS AS A VEHICLE FUEL Recentdevelopmentsweredirectedtowardstheutilizationof mixturesofnaturalgasandbiogenousmethaneasavehicle fuel.forthispurposetheestablishmentoffillingstationsis directlyconnectedtothefieldapplicationofsuchafuel. Currentlyabout100publicnaturalgasfillingstationsarein operationinaustria,withthegoaltoincreasethenumber to200until2010. ThemostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofH 2 Oare Cooling(condensation) Molecularsieve(adsorption) Polarsolvent glycol(absorption) Themostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofsiloxanesare Gasdryingsystemsandadsorptiononactivatedcarbon Adsorptiononpolymorphicporousgraphite AbsorptioninSelexol CO 2 scrubber ThemostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofCO 2 are Scrubber(absorption) Pressure swing adsorption(adsorption) Membraneprocess(permeation) 22 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

23 EMISSIONS FROM VEHICLES RUNNING ON (BIO-)METHANE COMPARED TO PETROL AND DIESEL Comparingtheutilizationofnaturalgasasavehiclefuelagainst petrolanddiesel,someadvantagecanbeshownovertheliquid hydrocarbonsintermsofemissionreduction.comparedtoa petroldrivenpassengercarfollowingtheeuro4standardupto 80%lesscarbonmonoxide(CO) 20%lesscarbondioxide(CO 2 ) 80%lessnon methanehydrocarbons(nmhc) 20%lowerglobalwarmingpotentialand40%lowerozone generationpotential ComparedtoadieseldrivenpassengercarfollowingtheEURO 4standardequippedwithaparticlefilterupto 10%lesscarbondioxide(CO 2 ) 90%lessnitricoxide(NO x ) 60%lessnon methanehydrocarbons(nmhc) practicallynoparticleemissions 10%lowerglobalwarmingpotentialand80%lowerozone generationpotential Employingbiogenousmethaneasanaturalgassubstitute,the emissionsofcarbondioxidecanberegardedaslowerbecause ofthebiogenicoriginofthesubstratesforbiogasproduction. FollowingtheGEMIS modelforco 2 calculationforthewhole biogasproductionandutilizationchain,aco 2 emission equivalentof30g/pkm(grammesperpassengerkilometre)has beencalculatedforamodelscenario,i.e.decentralizedbiogas productionfrommanureandinjectionintothepipeline.in comparisonthedieselpassengercarshowsemissionsof approximately120g/pkm.otheremissionsaresignificantly loweraswell:so 2 : g/pkm(diesel:0.07g/pkm),NO x : (diesel:0.43),particles: (diesel:0.04). However,usingothersubstrateforbiogasproduction(energy crops)andassuminganon optimallocationofthebiogasplant intermsoflongtransportationdistances(50km),thescenarios showthatthebenefitofbiogasisstronglydecreased.inthese casesco 2 equivalentsbetweenca.60and100g/pkmhaveto betakenintoconsideration. 23