Key Information Systems Management Issues for the Public Sector^

Transcription

1 Key Infrmatin Systems Management Issues fr the Publi Setr^ By: Sharn L. Caudle Shl f Infrmatin Studies Syrause University Syrause, New Yrk Wilpen L. Grr Shi f Urban and Publi Affairs Carnegie Meiin University Pittsburgh, Pennsyivania Kathryn E. Newmer Department f Pubii Administratin Shl f Gvernment and Business Administratin Gerge Washingtn University Washingtn, D.C Abstrat The publi setr has multiple, nfliting, and ften intangible gals. It prdues "publi gds" fr prblems that shuld be slved (like rime and pverty), even thugh these prblems may have n knwn feasible slutins; and it is heavily impated by plitis and bureaurati red tape. These and ther features f the publi setr make it ptentially a muh different setting fr IS management than the private setr. This artile reprts n the first natinal survey f publi setr managers identifying their mst imprtant IS issues. The survey, vering respndents frm federal, state, and lal gvernments, drew upn prir survey researh in the private setr and the literature n pubii/private setr differenes. This researh was spnsred by the Natinal Assiatin f Shls f Publi Affairs and Administratin and by the authrs' affiliated institutins during the time f study: the Center fr Gvernmental Servies. Auburn University; the Shl f Infrmatin Studies. Syrause University: the Shxjl f Urban and Publi Affairs, Carnegie Melln University: and the Department t Publi Administratin. Gerge Washingtn University. While mst f the tp publi setr issues als appear n the tp private setr issue lists, the rankings shw a tag in publi IS develpment as mpared t the private setr. Perhaps the mst interesting results f the survey, hwever, are frm a deeper analysis. At the main effets-level, we have preliminary evidene that (1) middlelevel (instead f tp-level) publi managers are ritial fr IS tehnlgy develpment; (2) smalt gvernment agenies are mre interested in IS tehnlgy transfer than targe nes; (3) gvernments with a lt f red tape tend t have flexible IS; and (4) lal gvernment IS issues are driven by transatin pressing whiie state and federal gvernments have ts mre suitable fr their versight missin. Keywrds; MIS managers, pinin survey, infrmatin systems management, key issues, management pririties ACM Categries: CO, H.O, K.6.0 Intrdutin MIS Quarterly has published five artiles assessing the imprtane f infrmatin systems (IS) issues t managers. Three surveyed Siety f Infrmatin Management members (Ball and Harris, 1982; Branheau and Wetherbe, 1987; Diksn, et al., 1984), ne used a sample f rganizatins frm the St. Luis, Missuri, area (Hartg and Herbert, 1986), and anther emplyed interviews nduted with tp managers in 49 Irish rganizatins (Mynihan, 1990). These studies identified key issues that supprt deisin making by "businesses and gvernment agenies... [affeting] prfitability and effetiveness," and the infrmatin prfessin in regard t "mmitment f its limited management, researh, and eduatinal resures" (Diksn, et al., 1984, p. 135). The surveys in these studies are limited, hwever, t the private setr. Their publi/nn-prfit setr sample sizes range nly frm ne t 19 respndents per survey. The ntributin f this artile is that it is the first natinal survey i publi managers' ratings f IS issues. Cnduted in mid-1988, the survey sampled high-level publi managers in federal, state, and unty agenies. A mparisn f ur imprtane-rating results with thse frm the MIS Quarterly/June

2 previus private setr surveys shws many similarities between the tw setrs but als sme prnuned and ritial differenes. The next setin reviews the underlying fatrs ntributing t publi/private setr differenes and leads t several uniquely publi IS issues. Subsequent setins summarize the survey instrument, its administratin, and verall survey results. Next is a mparisn f the survey results with previus private setr surveys, fllwed by a lse lk at the variatins within the publi setr survey. Differenes in Pubii and Private Setr Infrmatin Systems Rainey, et al. (1976) summarize the literature n differenes between publi and private rganizatins. Stated in terms fthe publi setr's harateristis relative t thse f the private setr, these differenes inlude: 1. Envirnnnental Fatrs: Less market expsure (and therefre mre reliane n apprpriatins) resulting in less inentive fr prdutivity and effetiveness, lwer allative effiieny, and twer availability f market infrmatin; mre legal and frmal nstraints; and higher plitial influenes, inluding impats f interest grups and need fr supprt f nstituenies. 2. Organtzatln/Envirnment Transatins: Mre mandatry atins due t the unique santins and erive pwers f gvernment; wider spe f nern and signifiane f atins in the "publi interest"; higher level f srutiny f publi ffiials; and greater expetatin that publi ffiials at fairly, respnsively, auntably, and hnestly. 3. Internal Struture and Presses: Mre mplex riteria (e.g., multiple, nfliting, and intangible); managers with less deisinmaking autnmy, less authrity ver subrdinates, greater relutane t delegate, and a mre plitial rle fr tp managers; mre frequent turnver f tp managers due t eletins and plitial appintments; diffiulties in devising inentives fr individual perfrmane; and lwer wrk satisfatin and rganizatinal mmitment. Using these general differenes and sme prpsitins n publi infrmatin systems (Bzeman and Bretshneider, 1986), we preed t identify IS issues unique t the publi setr. Prprietary versus shared IS Private setr firms ften treat infrmatin tehnlgy as prprietary, fr use as a mpetitive advantage in the market plae (Camillus and Lederer, 1985; Keen, 1988; King, etal., 1988; Luas, 1986; Marhand, 1985). In ntrast, gvernment prvides "publi gds," suh as eduatin, publi health, publi safety, and natinal seurity (Savas, 1982). By definitin, it is nt pssible (nr desirable) t exlude nsumptin f publi gds. Thus, while Branheau and Wetherbe (1987) intrdued the issue f using IS fr mpetitive advantage, we intrdue a publi setr unterpart. Tehnlgy Transfer: Agenies shuld find ways t inrease sharing f appliatins and tehnial assistane with ther agenies having similar funtins r prviding similar servies. Gals The mst frequently mentined differene between the publi and private setrs nerns underlying gals (Self, 1977). Market signals and prfit guide the private setr. In ntrast, publi setr rganizatins fae multiple gals, many f whih are intangible r in nflit with ne anther. Prblems faed in the publi setr are nes that "shuld" be addressed (e.g., redue rime) even thugh they may have n knwn slutins; whereas, prblems faed in the private setr are driven by feasibility nsideratins (Dwns and Larkey, 1989). A nsequene f these diffiulties is that infrmatin requirements are inherently mre diffiult and unstable in the publi setr (Caudle and Newmer, 1987; Newmer and Caudle, 1986). We therefre inlude the fllwing Issue. identifiatin f infrmatin Requirements: Agenies shuld develp systemati presses t identify and priritize infrmatin requirements. 172 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

3 This issue is mparable t, but smewhat narrwer than, the tp-rated issue in all f the private setr surveys, IS planning. Bureauray and paperwrk Partly in respnse t the inherent diffiulties in publi setr infrmatin requirements and the resulting prliferatin f frms and rerds, the Paperwrk Redutin At f 1980 sught t institutinalize infrmatin resure management in the federal gvernment (Caudle, 1988; Newmer and Caudle, 1986). Sme states are als adpting infrmatin resure management praties. We therefre inlude the fllwing issue. Infrmatin Resure Management: Agenies shuld adpt infrmatin resure management nepts (e.g., integratin f infrmatin tehnlgy management, rerds management, and ther infrmatin management areas) and assign a entrai institutinal respnsibility fr infrmatin lletin, pressing, disseminatin, pliy, and peratins. Plitial influenes Plitis disrupts the lng-range planning neessary fr infrmatin resure management. Dwns (1967) pints ut that eleted ffiials typially have shrter planning hrizns than bureau ffiials and are mre sensitive t publi pressures. Plitial yles ause peridi hanges in tp-level management and prgram pririties (Nigr and Nigr, 1977; Self, 1977). Bzeman and Bretshneider (1986) state that, "The apprpriatins press generally perates n an annual basis. Cngress turns ver every tw years, and the presideny is subjet t hange every fur years. Cnstant pressure exists t ahieve quik results results that an help the ageny reeive a larger share in the next rund f apprpriatins; results that an help in reeletin" (p. 479). T ffset plitial influenes, publi setr IS managers and users shuld plae imprtane n planning mehanisms that prvide ntinuity fr lng-range gals. We therefre inlude the fllwing Issue. Plitial infiuenes: New planning and budgeting predures shuld be develped t redue the Impats f shrt-run plitial pririties and the lak f plitial ntinuity that an underut mprehensive and lng-term IS planning. Anther impliatin f plitial yles is that frequent leadership and prgram hanges an ause disntinuities in basi data element definitins (e.g., as welfare reipient lasses hange, mpnents are added r subtrated t tax bases). Thus, time series and ther data need speial dumentatin t allw interpretatin and preserve infrmatin value (Grr, 1986). We therefre inlude the fllwing issue. Data Disntinuity Between Administratins: IS management shuld find ways t prvide fr lng-term ntinuity f data definitins and data aggregate lassifiatins, r a histrial rerd f hanges, t maintain the usefulness f histrial data. The Pubii Setr Survey Table 1 lists the 37 issues in the survey by ategry, and the Appendix ntains the prtin f ur survey instrument defining these issues as assertins apprpriate fr Likert-sale respnses. We used a five-pint sale where 1 is "nt imprtant at all" and 5 is "extremely imprtant." We defined imprtane in terms f management supprt, attentin, and ther rganizatinal resures required t ensure the suess f IS ver the typial gvernment budget planning hrizn f tw r three years. Issues unique t this survey are marked by an asterisk; hwever, issues like #1, "eduating eleted ffiials," whih have a mparable private setr issue already identified in the literature (eduating senir persnnel), are nt marked as unique. Respndent seletin Fr federal agenies, we mailed surveys t all exeutive-branh ffiials identified as "infrmatin resures manager peratinal ntats" in the 1987 diretry prvided by the U.S. General Servies Administratin. This sample prvided mplete verage f federal persnnel diretly MIS Quarterly/June

4 Table 1. Publi Survey Infrmatin Systems Issues A. Strategi Management Cnerns Eduating eleted ffiials Plitial influene Lng-term planning mehanisms* Cmprehensive planning integratin Infrmatin resure management* Researh and develpment B. Operatinal and Tatial Management Cnerns Identifiatin f infrmatin requirements Measuring IS effetiveness C. Appliatins Develpment and Maintenane Tehnlgy transfer" Tehnlgy transfer mehanisms* Mainframe sftware develpment Prurement and ntrating* Oversight requirements* Database management system impat* Appliatin generatrs Sftware maintenane* D. Persnnei issues Civil servie nstraints* Meeting mainframe persnnel needs Meeting mirmputer appliatins persnnel needs E. Data Management Distributed data pressing Data seurity Cmputer viruses' Data integrity F. Infrmatin Tehnlgies Integratin f tehnlgies End-user mputing Mainframe mputing Offie autmatin Deisin supprt systems Substitutin f tehnlgy fr trained persnnel* External data sures* Database administratin Publi and private infrmatin interests* Data disntinuity between administratins* Artifiial intelligene and expert systems Mirmputer sftware management Tehnlgy seurity Telemmuniatins tehnlgy * Indiates issues unique t this survey. respnsible fr infrmatin resure management prgrams, pliies, ntrl, and versight. Fr state ageny representatin, we sent surveys t ffiials in harge f the 50 state data pressing enters. We ais had the survey mpleted by partiipants f tw infrmatin systems planning wrkshps spnsred by the Ohi state gvernment and by members f the New Yrk Infrmatin Resure Frum (see Simmns, 1988). The latter tw grups nstitute samples f nveniene made up largely f tp-level managers frm the user mmunity wh have substantial distributed, satellite, r end-user mputing respnsibilities in their wn agenies. They nevertheless represent all state gvernment branhes {exeutive, legislative, and judiial) and a great number f prgram areas. Finally, surveys were sent t all unties exeeding 250,000 ppulatin and t a prbability sample f unties with less than 250,000 ppulatin prvided by the Natinal Assiatin f Cunties. 174 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

5 Instrument pretesting and survey administratin Pretesting nsisted f mailing the draft survey instrument t a limited number f respndents in tw levels f gvernment. In the federal gvernment, we sent it t fur ffiials, tw at the department level and tw at the ageny levei. At the state level, we sent it t the head f a state's data enter, t an ageny head f a department f anther state wh had a satellite mputer enter in his ageny, and t the diretr f an infrmatin system nsrtium f state agenies. Resulting revisins inluded snne hanges in the wrding f issues and drpping a diffiult ranking f issues within ategries. The survey was mailed in April Data lletin was terminated five mnths later. Apprximately ne mnth after the initial mailing, a single fllw-up mailing inluding anther py f the survey instrument was sent t nnrespndents. Respnse rates With the exeptin f unty ffiials, well ver 50 perent f thse sampled respnded: (1) federal respnses were 102 ut f a ttal f 172 surveyed fr a 59 perent respnse rate; (2) statelevel data pressing ffiials returned 32 ut f 50 sent fr a 64 perent respnse rate; (3) the Ohi wrkshp members returned 39 ut f 60 surveys fr a 65 perent respnse rate; (4) the New Yrk frum members returned 44 ut f 55 surveys fr an 80 perent respnse rate; and (5) unty respndents returned 137 ut f 717 sent fr a 19 perent respnse rate. Frty-nine perent f thse sampled frm unties with a ppulatin f less than 50,000 respnded; 10 perent f thse sampled frm unties with a ppulatin between 50,000 and 100,000 respnded; 15 perent f thse sampled respnded frm unties with a ppulatin between 100,000 and 250,000; and 20 perent respnded f thse sampled frm unties with a ppulatin f ver 250,000. Findings Regarding the IS Management Issues Table 2 shws the perentage f "imprtant" r "extremely imprtant" (referred t as "imprtant" hereafter t simplify expsitin) respnses fr the ttal sample. A number f the issues rated lwest in the ttal sample (e.g., data disntinuity between administratins, researh and develpment, and artifiial intelligene/expert systems) are highly rated by ertain respndent segments. A later setin f this artile presents segmented rankings. First, the tp 10 issues fr the ttal sample are disussed. #1 Integratin f Tehnlgies: Ninety-ne perent f the respndents agreed n the imprtane f IS management ensuring that urrent and future data pressing, telemmuniatins, and ffie autmatin tehnlgies are integrated t prevent inmpatibility. Integratin f tehnlgies is the number ne issue arss all respndent ategries exept fr thse in lwer management ffies, small agenies, and entral state ageny ffies wh seleted mprehensive planning integratin as their number ne issue. #2 Cmprehensive Planning Integratin: Eighty-six perent f all respndents rated as imprtant the issue that there shuld be a press that integrates infrmatin resure planning with the ageny's verall planning press. This issue reflets the inreased emphasis n IS planning in the past several years. #3 Infrmatin Requirements Identifiatin: Seventy-eight perent f all respndents said that an imprtant issue is agenies develping systemati presses t identify and priritize infrmatin requirements. Emphasis n requirements analysis reflets the diffiulty f publi setr prblems; i.e., their multiple and intangible riteria, multiple and nfliting interest grups, and lak f feasible slutins. #4 End-User Cmputing: Seventy-eight perent f all respndents believe it is imprtant that agenies prvide and inrease supprt, suh as Infrmatin enters and standardized hardware and sftware, fr end-user mputing. The expansin f ffie autmatin and end-user appliatins has inreased the imprtane f supprt fr mputer and appliatins literay and standardizatin f appliatins and mahinery. #5 Offie Autmatin: Seventy-seven perent f all respndents agreed n the imprtane f IS managers taking a leadership rle in planning, implementing, and managing ffie autmatin. N lnger are ffie autmatin appliatins MIS Quarterly/June

6 Table 2. Perentage f "Imprtant" r "Extremely Imprtant" Respnses fr the Ttal Sample Issue Integratin f tehnlgies Cmprehensive planning integratin Infrmatin requirements identifiatin End-user mputing Offie autmatin Data seurity Lng-term planning mehanisms Database management system impat Distributed data pressing Sftware maintenane Telemmuniatins tehnlgy Database administratin Mainframe sftware management Tehnlgy transfer Eduating eleted ffiials Tehnlgy transfer mehanisms Substituting tehnlgy fr persnnel Data integrity Measuring IS effetiveness Infrmatin resure management Plitial influene Civil servie nstraints Appliatin generatrs Mir sftware management Prurement and ntrating Mainframe mputing Mirmputer persnnel needs Oversight requirements Mainframe persnnel needs External data sures Cmputer viruses Data disntinuity between administratins Publi/private infrmatin interests Deisin supprt servies Tehnlgy seurity Researh and develpment Artifiial intelligene/expert systems Ttal Sample viewed as separate and apart frm mre traditlnal IS in the rganizatin. availability thrugh apprpriate prtl and a- ess ntrls. Our disussins with seleted respndents indiated that publi setr mana- #6 Data Seurity: Seventy-fur perent gers wuld like t find ways t ut thrugh red the respndents rated as imprtant the issue that ^ ^ agenies shuld balane data seurity and data 176 MIS Quatierly/June 1991

7 #7 Lng-Term Planning Mehanisms: Seventythree perent listed as imprtant that agenies peridially submit and apprve infrmatin resure plans befre they submit plan-linked budget requests. This results in Imprved lngterm deisin making. #8 Database Management System Impat: Seventy perent f the respndents rated as imprtant the need fr IS t inreasingly use database management systems t enhane appliatin develpment and maintenane. The flexibility prvided by suh systems is imprtant fr the ill-strutured and dynami set f prblems faed by publi rganizatins. #9 Distributed Data Pressing: Seventy perent als agreed n the imprtane f the need fr pliies that supprt the advantages f distributed data pressing while maintaining the integrity f entral IS. #10 Sftware Maintenane: Lastly, seventy perent f all respndents said that an imprtant issue is that IS managers need t find ways f imprving prdutivity in sftware maintenane. This result likely reflets the prepnderane f entralized data pressing respndents in the sample. Cmparisn With Private Setr Researh Table 3 mpares the tp 15 issues frm fur f the previusly published private setr surveys and this artile's publi setr survey. The fifth private setr survey (Mynihan, 1990) uses pen-ended interview questins and thus is nt easily inrprated int an item-by-item mparisn. Disussin will fus n the tp 10 issues f the publi setr survey list. An additinal five issues are inluded in the table (#11 t #15), hwever, t shw relatinships between the tp 10 publi issues and private setr survey trends. Fr instane, ffie autmatin was the #6 issue in the 1982 private setr survey, but then fell t #12 in 1984, #11 in 1985, and ff the tp 15 list in In ntrast, ffie autmatin is the #5 publi setr issue. Italis indiate issues that are n bth private and publi setr surveys. Issues that have sme prtin mdified fr setr differenes (e.g., eduating eleted ffiials versus eduating senir persnnel) are unted as the same. T failitate mparisns, sme issue labels are hanged in individual studies t make them nsistent thrughut the table. At times these hanges shade meaning, but we believe that verall meaning is preserved. Issues in ur pinin that are unique t any partiular study in this table are marked with asterisks. First, lking dwn the publi setr survey's lumn, seven ut f 10 tp issues als appear n the private setr surveys' tp 10 issues. Nne f the tp 10 publi setr issues, hwever, is uniquely "publi." (We have t g dwn t the 14th-ranked publi setr issue, tehnlgy transfer, t find the single uniquely publi setr issue.) Linking IS planning and budgeting (#7), appearing nly n the publi survey list, uid als be an issue fr private setr firms. Budgeting, hwever, des play a muh mre entral resure allatin rle in the publi setr beause there is little equivalent t market signals. Sftware maintenane (#10) is als appliable t bth setrs. Thus, althugh sme differenes exist, there is nsiderable agreement between the tw setrs n the tp 10 issues. The rankings f issues, hwever, is markedly different. The publi setr appears t be lagging the private setr in the develpment f sme majr IS issues. Integratin f tehnlgies was the #1 publi setr issue in the survey. It has been n a deline in the private setr, hwever, ranking #3 in 1984, #7 in 1985, and #10 in We speulate that the private setr has been getting this issue under ntrl. The publi setr, hwever, is hamstrung by red tape and prurement rules leading t lng delays and divergent mixes f equipment. Aligning IS with ageny gals, #2 n the publi setr list, is in line with the private setr rankings, whih were #7 in 1984 and #2 in IS planning, #3 n the publi setr list, has nsistently been #1 n the private setr lists. The lwer rating n the publi setr list may be the result f nly reent vigrus ativity in IS planning. End-user mputing (#4), has reently delined n the private setr lists. It was #11 in 1982, #2 in 1984, #5 in 1985, and #6 in We speulate that it ranks higher in the publi setr beause f (1) the relative ease f purhasing mirmputers versus mainframe mputers in the publi MIS Quarterly/June

8 CO g ^2.O) 0) If 2 ^ -I (0 E CO CQ G T3 O) g E (I) «3 t ^ ^ ^ CO (GO) Is.? Q a t E s ta\ mmu O O <D.Q) 1 Q sfraf/', CO <& E Q. el 2, t 3lgy 0) 1- Uj m CD!2 ta OC a r a ffl 1^ C ra > CO "^ _ t T3 ra, - Si «8 il < I I E CO.E > ut P 2 E «.9? 5 E 13 Cra ata (0 E a> *^ tn _ ra ra I- (0 Q. CO I tl E Q t O) ^ «t -Q Q ta I Q t CO «(0 if 11?J Si l 5 i2 S. ^ S 9 " CO t E-2 Ci O,03 O E 8 D> CD (D Qi Q) 1 "D 5 r. ^ 0 ) 1? O = tn 2 ^ t "ffl is "(0 I- a Q ra E ^ a CO tr 3 Q. CD 0) ra > a. x:.a Ol CO = 5> t.9 If i O r Q. Q. g Cl> j. ^.^"!= O CO. 2 E s t tj O a 3 man 3 SZ t t Ii if "n t 0) O >< tj Q.'tO,E g i> m t Q> Q. S n) 178 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

9 setr; (2) the lng publi setr baklg f appliatins awaiting develpment; and (3) the need fr this flexible resure in the paperwrk-driven envirnment f gvernment. As mentined abve, ffie autmatin, #5 n the publi setr list, has had a dwnward trend n the private lists. It was #6 in 1982, #12 in 1984, and #11 in The private setr surveys tend t be dminated, hwever, by the manufaturing setr. If there were a private setr survey with adequate sample sizes fr reliable industry-level rankings, we might see this issue als rated as high as in tha publi setr by, say, finanial rganizatins. Data seurity, #6 n the publi setr list, is in line with the private setr ratings, whih inreased t #6 in Cmparisn f Publi Setr Respndent Categries We requested additinal data frm ur respndents t help explain differenes in the pereived imprtane f IS management issues. The variables inluded respndents' level f gvernment, ageny size, rganizatinal psitin f respndents, ageny missin, the degree f entralizatin r deentralizatin f infrmatin servies, the mix f mainframe versus mirmputer appliatins, and IS management ategries. Cntingeny tables and the hi-squared test f independene were used t analyze the data. Even thugh we did nt btain a fully randm sample, we believe this analytial methd prvides a better guideline than simply reprting average sres r perentage mparisns. Beause ell sample sizes were ften t small arding t a mmn rule f thumb,^ respnses were aggregated int tw grups: "nt, slightly, r smewhat imprtant" (sale pints 1, 2, and 3) and "imprtant r extremely imprtant" (4 and 5). Differenes between ategries that are statistially signifiant at the 0.95 r higher level are inluded in Table 4. Level f gvernment We expeted there wuld be differenes in survey respnses arss the lal, state, and ^ Cell expeted value frequenies less than five under the null hypthesis t independene shuld be avided. federal levels f gvernment. Fr example, as the level f gvernment inreases, primary wrk mves frm peratin f servie delivery systems t supprt f versight and regulatry systems. Lal gvernments are primarily nerned with prviding diret servies, e.g,, publi safety, slid waste lletin and dispsal, and primary/ sendary eduatin. These servies require mainframe, transatin-pressing systems. The federal gvernment, while prviding sme diret servies like natinal seurity and natinal parks, largely has pliy making and versight respnsibilities. These pliy analysis and administratin needs require flexible IS tehnlgies like database management systems, end-user mputing, and mputer netwrks (Caudle and Newmer, 1987). We reasned that the states shuld be smewhere in-between the lal and federal gvernments in regard t transatin pressing versus flexible and distributed pressing needs. We asked respndents, therefre, if their ageny's primary prgram missin invlved the lletin, maintenane, and pressing f individual rerds. The federal and state gvernment respndents were nearly idential, with 38 and 35 perent respetively indiating a missin invlving individual rerds. This statisti is dramatially higher fr unty gvernments: 84 perent f unty respndents had a missin invlving transatinal rerds. As expeted and as an be seen in Table 4, lal gvernments plae mre imprtane n mainframe systems and effiient transatin pressing while the federal gvernment plaes mre imprtane n distributed data pressing, mirmputer systems, and flexible IS. Speifially, bth unty and state gvernments plae signifiantly mre imprtane n mainframe mputing, while the federal gvernment plaes mre imprtane n distributed data pressing and satisfying mirmputer persnnel needs than the ther tw levels f gvernment. The federal gvernment als plaes muh mre imprtane n database management system impats, shwing a need fr flexible IS develpment and use. Anther fatr leading t differenes in survey respnses arss the lal, state, and federal levels f gvernments is diffiulty in making hanges (i.e., "red tape"). The size f agenies MIS Quarterly/June

10 Table 4. Statistially Signifiant Differenes in "imprtant" r "Extremeiy imprtant" Respnses: Level f Gvernment, Ageny Size, and Management Levei (0.05 r iwer type I errr) Level f Gvernment Federai State Cunty Eduating eleted ffiials Researh and develpment Prurement and ntrating Oversight requirements Database management system impat Civil servie nstraints Mirmputer persnnel needs Substituting tehnlgy fr persnnel Distributed data pressing Data seurity Mainframe mputing sr Size f Respndent Ageny (Federai and State Oniy) Smaii <200 FTE Large >200 FTE Prurement and ntrating Tehnlgy transfer mehanisms Data disntinuity between administratins Management Levei Middie Tp Cmprehensive planning integratin Researh and develpment External data sures Publi/private infrmatin interests Data disntinuity between administratins Artifiial intelligene/expert systems inreases with level; the bigger the ageny, the mre rules and layers f management exist, and the mre diffiult it is t make large hanges (Dwns, 1967). Als, the higher the level f gvernment, the mre diverse and widely sattered are nstituents. These fatrs inrease ntrls and auntability requirements, make it diffiult t hire and retain tehnial and prfessinal staff, slw dwn prurement presses, and inrease transatin sts. Indeed, as seen in Table 4, the perentages f imprtane ratings fr the red tape issues (prurement and ntrating, versight requirements, and ivil servie nstraints) inrease with inreasing level f gvernment and are remarkably higher fr the federal gvernment than the state and lal gvernments. Lastly, in the level f gvernment setin f Table 4, nte that eduating eleted ffiials bemes inreasingly imprtant as the level f gvernment dereases. At lwer levels, IS managers experiene inreased ntat and dependene n plitiians. Cnstituenies are smaller and mre intensely fused as th level f gvernment dereases, plaing mre pressure n plitiians. In turn, lal-level plitiians exert mre influene n the management f gvernment than their state r federal-level unterparts. This attentin an divert funds away frm IS r, if plitians an be "brught n bard," an inrease IS supprt. Ageny size The size-f-ageny variable, with ategries fr less than the greater than 200 full-time equivalent (FTE) emplyees, again prvides sme evidene that red tape inreases with size f ageny. Seventy-fur perent f the managers in large 180 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

11 state and federal agenies^ rate reduing prurement and ntrating red tape as imprtant, as mpared t nly 45% in small agenies. The next issue, tehnlgy transfer mehanisms, is muh mre imprtant fr small agenies than large nes. Small agenies likely have limited r even nn-existent sftware develpment budgets, and tehnlgy transfer may be ne f the few ways f btaining speialized sftware. On the last issue in this grup, data disntinuity between administratins, smaller agenies rated this mre imprtant than large agenies, perhaps beause small ageny respndents are mre respnsive t transitin issues and are lser t servie delivery than their unterparts in larger rganizatins. Management level Tp managers in gvernment rganizatins have a plitiized, larger external rle then their unterparts in private firms. Tp gvernment ffiials must seek apprpriatins thrugh plitial means, are appinted and serve at the pleasure f eleted ffiials r ther plitial appintees, and must deal with plitial influenes and the wants f multiple interest grups (Bzeman and Bretshneider, 1986; Lahman, 1985; Marhard, 1985; Mintzberg, 1973; Nigr and Nigr, 1977; Rainey, 1983). This means that gvernment ffiials are muh mre nerned with pliy agenda-setting presses rather than management funtins. Cnsequently, they d nt fus their attentin n infrmatin resure management as muh as their private setr unterparts. We therefre speulated that in the publi setr, middle-level (areer) managers fill this gap by plaing higher imprtane n infrmatin tehnlgy develpment and pursuit f emerging infrmatin tehnlgies than upper-level (eleted r plitial appintee) managers. T investigate this pssibility, we asked respndents hw many management levels existed between the head f their immediate ffie and the ageny head. The "tp" management level ategry in Table 4 is fr a respndent whse department head is within tw levels f We exluded unty data frm this analysis beause ageny size respnses are biased high. Relatively few unties with ppulatin less than 250,000 have separate data pressing departments, s respndents tended t prvide ttal unty gvernment emplyment and budgets rather than just department values. the ageny head. "Middle" is three r mre levels belw the ageny head. As seen in Table 4, the middle-level managers plae signifiantly higher imprtane than tp managers n five issues dealing with IS R&D and new uses f data: researh and develpment, external data sures, publi private infrmatin interests, data disntinuity between administratins, and artifiial intelligene/expert systems. This result is as expeted. Organizatinal arrangements fr mputer servies We asked respndents t lassify their ffie in terms f rganizatinal arrangements fr supplying mputer servies. Table 5's tp half shws that almst three-quarters f the ttal sample's respndents were frm entralized data pressing shps. The federal gvernment respndents have mre dispersin amng the pressing ategries shwn; state and unty gvernment respndents reprted a prepnderane f entralized data pressing shps. Respndents were als asked what perentage f their ageny's ttal infrmatin system appliatins are supprted by in-huse mainframe staff, in-huse mirmputer users, utside nsulting servies, r by anther ageny's mainframe and/r mirmputer staff. Median respnses in eah ategry, shwn in the bttm half f Table 5, indiate that 80 perent f the respndents' ttal infrmatin system appliatins were supprted by in-huse mainframe staff; unty respndents are high with 86 perent fllwed lsely by the states' 80 perent. Only 40 perent f federal ttal infrmatin system appliatins are supprted by in-huse mainframe staff. Federal gvernment agenies have the highest level f in-huse mirmputer staff, 20 perent, whih dereases t 10 perent fr state gvernments, and 5 perent fr unty gvernments. We expeted that respndents wuld see issues affeting their mputing supprt as mre imprtant. Fr mparisn, we used tw variables. One was type f pressing either plaement in a entralized data pressing shp r in a mirmputer shp (defined as 15 perent r mre f appliatins written by in-huse mirmputer users). The ther was type f mputer appliatins, measured by predminane f inhuse mainframe appliatins (defined as at least MIS Quarterly/June

12 Table 5. Type f Infrmatin Pressing and Cmputer Appliatins (H) Pressing and Appliatins Level Federal f Gvernment State Cunty Ttal Sample Type f Pressing (%) Centralized DP shp Satellite f entralized DP shp Deentralized departmental unit Use DP servies f thers Other Ttal % % a 0 99% % Median Type f Cmputer Appliatins {%) In-huse mainframe staff In-huse mirmputer users Outside nsulting servies Other ageny's staff perent f an ageny's ttal IS appliatins are supprted by in-huse mainframe staff). As seen in Table 6, managers in "mirmputer shps" ("Yes" lumn) are nt interested in mainframe mputing, ntrls that may be plaed n their planning r purhasing ("lngterm planning mehanisms"), r advaned IS tehnlgies like deisin supprt systems. The mainframe-riented agenies ("Yes" lumn) want t develp and prtet their kind f servies (e.g,, "mainframe mputing"). Infrmatin systems management ategry Lastly, respndents were asked t pik ne f fur desriptins that best haraterized the verall state f IS management in their ageny. The ategries f infrmatin system management were a variatin f Nlan's stages (Gibsn and Nlan, 1974; Nlan, 1979; Rainey, 1983; Rainey, et al., 1976) with the additin f infrmatin resure management desriptrs (Newmer and Caudle, 1986). The hies were as fllws. Initiatin: Fus n early use f mputers by a small number f users t meet basi appliatins (suh as aunting and rerd keeping); deentralized ntrl and unstrutured planning; physial paperwrk and rerds management are imprtant. Expansin: Fus n experimentatin with and adptin f mputers by many users, prliferatin f appliatins; infrmatin management is in transitin frm basi appliatins t management f mre extensive appliatins and autmated tehnlgies, Frmalizatin: Fus n inreasing effiieny; harging users fr IS servies under develpment r being implemented; prfessinalizatin f infrmatin system staff and predures underway; shedule f priritized infrmatin system prjets under develpment; management f infrmatin tehnigies and tehnial attributes are imprtant. Integratin: Fus n an established set f appliatins vering pririty peratinal and management infrmatin needs; database administratin established; planning well-established and linked t the budget press; infrmatin resure management praties established. We regnize that this measure has limitatins in that the respndent has t integrate judgmentally ver all IS mpnents in his/her ageny t prdue an verall assessment. Thus, whiie we inluded a fur-ategry measure in the survey, we llapsed it t tw ategries fr analysis: integratin stage and less than integratin stage (labeled "ther" in Table 7). In the ttal sample, 47 perent f the respnses were in the integra- 182 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

13 Table 6. Statistially Signifiant Differenes in "Imprtant" r "Extremeiy Imprtant" Respnses: Organlzatinai Arrangements fr Cmputer Servies (0.05 r iwer type i errr) Organizatinal Arrangement Yes N Pressing: Mirmputer Shp? Cmprehensive planning Prurement and ntrating Lng-term planning mehanisms Mainframe persnnei needs Mainframe mputing Data disntinuity between administratins Deisin supprt systems Tehnlgy seurity Appiiatins: Mainframe Orientatin? Prurement and ntrating Mainframe sftware management Oversight requirements Mainframe mputing Tabie 7. Statistiaiiy Signifiant Differenes in "imprtant" r "Extremeiy Imprtant" Respnses: IS Management Categry (0.05 r lwer type i errr) is Management Categry Lng-term planning mehanisms Mainframe sftware management Database management system impat Data integrity External data sures Database administratin Mainframe mputing Offie autmatin Tehnlgy seurity Telemmuniatins tehnlgy integratin Other tin stage, 28 perent were in the frmalizatin stage, 21 perent were in the expansin stage, and 5 perent were in the initializatin stage. The 10 issues in this ategry with signifiant differenes in Table 7 simply shw that already advaned agenies (in integratin stage) want even mre advaned tehnlgies. The demand fr IS tehnlgy "snwballs" ver time. Cnlusin Twelve f the 15 tp-ranked IS management issues in the publi setr survey f this artile als appeared n the tp 15 issue lists f the private setr surveys in the literature. This repliatin f results arss setrs, with substantial variatin in data lletin and analysis methds, is gratifying. It suggests that past ef- MIS Quarterly/June

14 frts have develped a valid set f IS management issues. It als suggests that there are many similarities between the publi and private setrs (a result nsistent with Lahman, 1985). There are als ntable differenes. First, tw f the tp 15 publi setr issueslinking IS planning and budgeting, and tehnlgy transfer are unique and paramunt in the publi setr. The budgeting press is entral t the peratin f gvernments, a press that substitutes fr the market allative mehanisms f the private setr. Linking IS budget requests t lng-range IS planning is a mehanism fr verming the shrt-range emphasis in gvernment n plitial pressures. Seventy-three perent f the respndents t ur survey ranked this issue as imprtant r extremely imprtant. Send, tehnlgy transfer is an issue derived frm the "publi" nature f gds prdued by gvernments. It is impssible and undesirable t exlude individuals frm nsuming suh gds, s their sts need t be shared. Sharing IS develpment sts thrugh gvernment nsrtia and freely transferring tehnlgies frm ne ageny t anther ntrast sharply with prprietary, private-setr IS develped fr mpetitive advantage. Send, three issues that have peaked in imprtane in the private setr and are nw n the deline rank in the five tp publi setr issues: integratin f tehnlgies, end-user mputing, and ffie autmatin. The literature n publi/private setr differenes and the rrespnding empirial findings fund in this artile suggest this lag t be due t many fatrs, suh as the mpliated nature f publi gds, shrtrun perspetive f plitiians, and limitatins aused by the gvernment red tape and auntability requirements. An alternative explanatin is that the private-setr surveys largely represent manufaturing firms and are nt representative f servie rganizatins, whih, like gvernment agenies, are still highly interested in paperwrk-riented IS. Finally are sme findings n theretially derived issues. One is that tp-level (plitial appintee) publi managers are less inlined t develp new infrmatin tehnlgies than middle-level (areer) publi managers. In ntrast, MIS suess in the private setr is lsely tied t the supprt f upper-level exeutives (Bzeman and Bretshneider, 1986). Apparently, strategies fr develping IS tehnlgies in the publi setr need a middle-up emphasis. Anther nlusin is that red tape, inreasing with size f rganizatin and level f gvernment, has majr impats n infrmatin tehnlgies emplyed: the mre red tape, the mre flexible the infrmatin tehnlgy emplyed. In summary, we believe that IS management issues researh an prvide verall guidane t managers, researhers, and eduatrs. The value f suh researh an be greatly inreased, hwever, by preeding t thery-based researh designs. Prir researh has tended t reprt summary survey respnses at the ttal sample level and apparently withut muh theretial guidane. This artile has prvided main effets-level results, driven by IS and rganizatinal theries. Althugh the results are still explratry, they demnstrate the feasibility and attrativeness f thery-based IS management issues researh. We enurage additinal suh researh in the publi and private setrs. In the private setr, we wuld like t see researh inluding market segmentatin (e.g., ne-digit standard industrial lassifiatin de level), rganizatin size and struture variables, type f IS (transatins pressing, MIS, DSS, et.), and ther fatrs. A study ntrasting publi and private servie delivery systems wuld be extremely interesting, espeially ne that ties int the literature n "privatizing" the publi setr. Referenes Ball, L. and Harris, R. "SMIS Membership Analysis," MIS Quarterly (6:1), Marh 1982, pp Bzeman, B. and Bretshneider, S. "Publi Management Infrmatin Systems," Publi Administratin Review (46), Speial Issue, Nvember 1986, pp Branheau, J.C. and Wetherbe, J.C. "Key Issues in Infrmatin Systems Management," MIS Quarterly (11:1), Marh 1987, pp Camillus, J.C. and Lederer, L. "Crprate Strategy and the Design f Cmputerized Infrmatin Systems," Slan Management Review (26.3), Spring 1985, pp Caudle, S.L. Federal Infrmatin Resures Management: Bridging Visin and Atin, Natinal Aademy f Publi Administratin, Washingtn, DC MIS Quarterly/June 1991

15 Caudle, S.L. and Newmer, K. "Cmmand and Cntrl: Publi Prgram Oversight in the Infrmatin Age," Infrmatin Management Review {3:^), Summer 1987, pp Diksn, G.W., Leitheiser, R.L., Wetherbe, J.C, and Nehis, M. "Key Infrmatin Systems Issues fr the 198O's, "MIS Quarterly (8:3), September 1984, pp Dwns, A. Inside Bureauray, Little, Brwn and C., Bstn, MA, Dwns, G.W. and Larkey, P.D. The Searh fr Gvernment Effiieny. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA, Gibsn, CF. and Nlan, R.L. "Managing the Fur Stages f EDP Grwth," Harvard Business Review (52:1), January-February 1974, pp Grr, W.L. "Speial Event Data in Shared Databases," MIS Quarterly {^0:3), September 1986, pp Hartg, C. and Herbert, M. "1985 Opinin Survey f MIS Managers: Key Issues," MIS Quarterly {\QA), Deember 1986, pp Keen, P.G.W. Cmpeting in Time: Using Telemmuniatins fr Cmpetitive Advantage, Ballinger Publishing, Cambridge, MA, King. W., Hufnagel, E., and Grver, V. "Using Infrmatin Tehnlgy fr Cmpetitive Advantage," in Infrmatin Management: The Strategi Advantage, M. Earl (ed.). Clarendn Press, New Yrk, NY, 1988, pp Lahman, R. "Publi and Private Setr Differenes: CEOs' Pereptins f Their Rle Envirnments," Aademy f Management Jurnai {28:3), September 1985, pp Luas, H.C., Jr. "Utilizing Infrmatin Tehnlgy: Guidelines fr Managers," Slan Management Review (28:1), Fall 1986, pp Marhand, D.A. "Infrmatin Management: Strategies and Tls in Transitin," Infrmatin Management Review (1:1), Summer 1985, pp Mintzberg, H. The Nature f Managerial Wrt<, Harper and Rw, New Yrk, NY, Mynihan, T. "What Chief Exeutives and Senir Managers Want frm Their IT Departments," MtS Quarterly i \4:^), Marh 1990, pp Newmer, K. and Caudle, S.L. "Federal Infrmatin Resure Management: Embraing the Cnept," Infrmatin Management Review (2:1), Summer 1986, pp Nigr, F. and Nigr, L. Mdern Pubii Administratin, Harper and Rw, New Yrk, NY Nlan, R.L. "Managing the Crises in Data Pressing," Harvard Business Review (57:2), Marh-April pp Rainey, H.G. "Publi Agenies and Private Firms: Inentive Strutures, Gals, and Individual Rles," Administratin and Siety (15:2), August 1983, pp Rainey, H. Bakff, R., and Levine, C. "Cmparing Publi and Private Organizatins," Publi Administratin Review (36:2), Marh/Aprii 1976, pp Savas. E.S. Privatizing the Pubii Setr, Chatham Huse Publishers, In., Chatham, NJ, Self, P. Administrative Thery and Plitis, Allen and Unwin, Lndn, Simmns, A. "New Yrk's Inf Frum," Gvernment Tehn/gy (1:4), July/August 1988, pp Abut the Authrs Sharn L. Caudle is dean f researh and planning at Riverside Cmmunity Cllege in Riverside, Califrnia. She was frmerly with the Shl f Infrmatin Studies at Syrause University. She is the authr f mngraphs and artiles n publi setr infrmatin resure management appearing in jurnals suh as Publi Administratin Review, the Internatinal Jurnal f Publi Administratin, and Infrmatin Management Review. Wilpen L. Grr is prfessr f publi pliy and management infrmatin systems at the Shl f Urban and Publi Affairs, Carnegie Melln University. He has published artiles in Management Siene, MIS Quarterly, Deisin Sienes, Publi Administratin Review, The Internatinal Jurnal f Freasting, and ther jurnals. His urrent researh interests inlude the design, implementatin, and evaluatin f deisin supprt systems fr drug enfrement and lal gvernment budgeting; develpment f methds t estimate spatial diffusin presses; and mdeling the spatial diffusin f the HIV/AIDS epidemi. Kathryn E. Newmer is prfessr and hair f the Department f Publi Administratin at Gerge Washingtn University, where she teah- MIS Quarterly/June

16 es urses n researh design, statistis, and prgram evaluatin in the M.P.A. urriulum. She has als taught at the University f Nebraska, the University f Denver, the University f Iwa, and Grinnell Cllege. Dr, Newmer has served as the prinipal investigatr fr a number f evaluatin prjets, inluding studies related t telenferening administrative hearings, publi pliy implementatin, ngressinal eletins, federal regulatin, and ther tpis. She has designed evaluatin strategies and then partiipated in the subsequent evaluatins f prgrams within several natinal nn-prfit rganizatins based in Washingtn, D.C. She has als wrked as a nsultant t the Departments f Army, Interir, State, and Agriulture. Her mst reent bk is Imprving Gvernment Perfrmane. whih she edited with Je Whley. She has published artiles in several bks and jurnals, inluding Law and Pliy Affairs Quarterly, Evaluatin Review. Infrmatin Management Review, and The Publi Administratin Review. Appendix Survey Questins: Imprtane f Infrmatin Systems Issues A. Strategi management nerns Issue 1: Eduating Eleted Offiials. Tp plitial leaders need t learn the rle f infrmatin resures, suh as infrmatin systems, in gvernment. Issue 2; Plitial Influene. New planning and budgeting predures shuld be develped t redue the impats f shrt-run plitial pririties and the lak f plitial ntinuity that an underut mprehensive, lng-term infrmatin systems planning. Issue 3: Lng-Term Planning Mehanisms. T prvide fr lng-term deisin making, agenies shuld submit and apprve infrmatin resure plans peridially befre the submissin f rrespnding, plan-linked budget requests. Issue 4: Cmprehensive Planning Integratin. There shuld be a press that integrates infrmatin resure planning with the ageny's verall planning press. Issue 5: Infrmatin Resure Management. Agenies shuld adpt infrmatin resure management nepts (e.g,, integratin f infrmatin tehnlgy management, rerds management, and ther infrmatin management areas) and assign a entral institutinal respnsibility fr infrmatin lletin, pressing, disseminatin, pliy, and peratins. Issue 6: Researh and Develpment. Agenies shuld devte mre resures t mnitr and evaluate tehnlgial develpments fr ageny needs. S. Operatinal and tatial management nerns Issue 7: Identifiatin f Infrmatin Requirements. Agenies shuld develp systemati presses t identify and priritize infrmatin requirements. Issue 8: Measuring IS Effetiveness. Agenies shuld develpe better measures and estimatin methds t shw the true sts f infrmatin and evaluate the net benefits f prpsed infrmatin system prjets. Issue 9: Prurement and Cntrating. Agenies shuld mdify prurement and ntrating predures t expedite the delivery f infrmatin servies, hardware, and/r tehnial assistane. issue 10: Oversight Requirements. Agenies shuld balane auntability demands and management pratialities s external ntrls d nt needlessly hamper tehnlgial innvatin. 186 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

17 C. Appliatins develpment and maintenane Issue 11: Tehnlgy Transfer. Agenies shuld find ways t inrease sharing f appliatins and tehnial assistane with ther agenies having similar funtins r prviding similar servies. Issue 12: Tehnlgy Transfer Mehanisms. On a statewide r natinal basis, similar agenies shuld avid "reinventing the wheel" in appliatins sftware develpment and tehnlgial innvatin by frming r using perative arrangements. Issue 13: Mainframe Sftware Develpment. Mainframe appliatins sftware shuld be develped mre quikly and with nsistently higher quality. Issue 14: Database Management System Impat. IS must inreasingly use database management systems t enhane appliatin develpment and maintenane. Issue 15: Appliatin Generatrs. IS must inreasingly use appliatin generatrs and furth generatin languages in plae f third generatin languages t inrease prdutivity. Issue 16: Sftware Maintenane. IS managers need t find ways f imprving prdutivity in sftware maintenane. D. Persnnel issues Issue 17: Civil Servie Cnstraints. Civil servie rules that hamper r prevent the reruitment f skilled infrmatin management and tehnial persnnel shuld be hanged. Issue 18: Meeting Mainframe Persnnel Needs. Cntinued persnnel shrtages will inrease the need fr resures t reruit, retain, and retrain mainframe persnnel. Issue 19: Meeting Mirmputer Appliatins Persnnel Needs. Cntinued persnnel shrtages will inrease the need fr resures t reruit, retain, and retrain persnnel in mirmputer sftware and appliatins psitins. Issue 20: Substitutin f Tehnlgy fr Trained Persnnel. Cntinued persnnel shrtages will require IS t depend mre heavily n appliatin generatrs, database management systems, end-user mputing, and s n, t meet infrmatin needs. E. Data management Issue 21: Distributed Data Pressing. Pliies are needed that supprt the advantages f distributed data pressing while maintaining the integrity f entral infrmatin systems. Issue 22: Data Seurity. Agenies shuld balane data seurity and data availability thrugh apprpriate prtl and aess ntrls. Issue 23: Cmputer Viruses. Agenies shuld develp and implement ative prgrams fr diagnsing and prteting infrmatin systems frm mputer viruses. Issue 24: Data Integrity. IS must devte additinal resures t the auray, timeliness, and adequay f data prvided t users. Issue 25: External Data Sures. IS managers shuld sreen external data sures, heighten user awareness f external data valuable t the rganizatin, inluding interageny and intergvernmental sures, and prvide aess t suh data. Issue 26: Database Administratin. IS shuld inreasingly use database administratin t prvide quality assurane f data hldings arss many end users and deal with infrmatin resure wnership nepts arss the rganizatin. issue 27: Publi and Private Infrmatin Interests. Agenies shuld balane ageny users' infrmatin needs with the requirements f legislatin, suh as the Freedm f Infrmatin At and the Privay At. MIS Quarterly/June

18 Issue 28: Data Disntinuity Between Administratins. IS maiiagement shuld find ways t prvide fr lng-term ntinuity f data definitiiis and data aggregate lassifiatins, r a histrial rerd f hanges, t maintain the usefulness f histrjal data. F. Infrmatin tehnlgies issue 29: integratin f Tehnigies. IS management shuld ensure that urrent and future data pressing, telemmuniatins, and ffie autmatin tehnlgies are integrated t prevent inmpatibility. issue 30: End-User Cmputing. Agenies shuld prvide and inrease supprt suh as infrmatin enters and standardized hardware and sftware fr end-user mputing. issue 31: Mainframe Cmputing. Agenies shuld prvide mre resures t imprve mainframe mputer servies. issue 32: Offie Autmatin. IS managers shuld take a leadership rle in planning, implementing, and managing ffie autmatin. Issue 33: Deisin Supprt Systems. IS shuld develp and implement deisin supprt systems that failitate their use in an ageny's plitial envirnment. issue 34: Artifiiai inteiiigene and Expert Systems. IS managers shuld study artifiial intelligene and expert systems nw t plan fr their use ver the next several years. issue 35: Mirmputer Sftware Management. Initial setetin f mirmputer sftware and subsequent upgrades shuld be better managed. issue 36: Tehnlgy Seurity. IS management shuld implement better physial seurity ver infrmatin tehnlgies, suh as mputers and peripheral devies. Issue 37: Teiemmuniatins Tehnigy. IS management shuld ensure that lng-term vie and data telemmuniatins deisins are made despite ntinuing tehnlgial hanges, telemmuniatins deregulatin, and the sarity f experiened persnnel. 188 MIS Quarterly/June 1991

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