NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA COURSE CODE: INR211 COURSE TITLE:INTERNATIONAL LAW & DIPLOMACY IN EUROPE IN THE 19 TH CENTURY

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1 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA COURSE CODE: INR211 COURSE TITLE:INTERNATIONAL LAW & DIPLOMACY IN EUROPE IN

2 COURSE GUIDE COURSE GUIDE INR211 Course Team Ikedinma H. A. (Developer/Writer) - Vox (Nig) Ltd. Mr. Terhemba (Coordinator) - NOUN NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ii

3 COURSE GUIDE National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: Published By: National Open University of Nigeria First Printed 2012 ISBN: All Rights Reserved CONTENTS PAGE Introduction iii

4 COURSE GUIDE Course Aims Course Objectives Working through this Course... 2 Course Materials.. 2 Study Units.. 2 Textbooks and References.. 3 Assessment... 3 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA).. 4 Final Examination and Grading.. 4 Course Marking Scheme. 4 Presentation Schedule. 4 Course Overview/Presentation Schedule... 5 How to Get the Most from This Course.. 6 Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials 7 Summary. 7 iv

5 Introduction Welcome to INR211: International Law and Diplomacy in Europe in the 19th century. This course is a two-credit unit course for undergraduate students of International Relations. International Law and Diplomacy introduces you to the historical development of diplomatic relations in Europe in the 19th century. The course x-rays the pattern of inter-state relations prior to introduction of international law and diplomacy in the 19th century in Europe. This course also exposes you to the wars fought in European continent in the early 19th century. The contributions of religions organisations to maintain peace at the period is also highlighted. This course also provides you with the requirements of becoming a good diplomat and functions of diplomatic missions. Course Aims The aim of this course is to provide you with a comprehensive knowledge of the historical development of international law and diplomacy in Europe in the 19th century. Thus, this course will appraise and analyse the patterns of inter-state relations among the European nations during and before the period in view. Consequently, this course has been prepared to: give you all encompassing definitions and meanings of diplomacy trace the historical development of diplomacy in the 19th Century Europe discuss the type of wars fought in the continent of Europe at the period explain the contributions of peace conferences held within the period appraise diplomatic method of the 19th Century. Course Objectives To achieve the aims set out above, INR211: International Law and Diplomacy in Europe in the 19th century has overall objectives. In addition to this, each unit of the course also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are stated at the beginning of each unit. You should read the objectives before going through the unit. You may wish to refer to them during the study of the unit to assess your progress.

6 Here are the wider objectives for the Course as a whole. On successful completion of this course, you should be able to: state the steps taken to ensure peace in the 19th century Europe discuss the contributions of Westphalia Treaty in present state system give different definitions of diplomacy discuss the historical development of diplomacy in Europe discuss the origin of international law explain the sources of international law discuss the contributions of international courts of justice in ensuring peace identify the origin of international organisations assess the limitations of international law discuss the functions of the United Nations in discuss international law and diplomacy for ensuring peace in 19th century. Working through This Course To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and other related materials. In this course, there are exercises which will assist you to understand the concepts presented in each of the units. At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit written assignment for assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you will write a final examination. Course Materials The major materials you will need for this course are: 1. Course guide 2. Study units 3. Assignments file 4. Relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each unit Study Units There are four modules made up of 16 units in this course. They are listed below. ii

7 Module 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Module 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Module 3 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Module 4 Unit1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Diplomatic History of Contemporary Europe Pre-Westphalia Europe The Emergence of the Westphalia System Europe in Search of Peace The Peace of Paris Diplomacy as a Concept Definitions of Diplomacy The Origins of Diplomacy Professionalising Diplomacy Modernisation of Diplomacy International Law Historical Development of International Law Systematisation of International Law 19th Century Sources of International Law Subject Matter and Jurisdiction of International of International Law Features from the 19th Century Diplomacy Institutionalised Approaches to the Control of Inter-State Relations Approaches to Settlement of International Disputes Emergence of International Organisations International Law and International Courts of Justice Textbooks and References Certain books have been recommended in this course. You may wish to purchase them for further reading. Assessment File An assessment file and a marking scheme will be made available to you. In the assessment file, you will find details of the works you must submit to your tutor for marking. There are two aspects of the assessment for this course: the tutor-marked assignment and the written examination; you will be graded on the marks you obtain in these two areas. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadline stated in the presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will constitute 30 percent of your total score. iii

8 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) Each unit in this course has a tutor-marked assignment. You will be assessed on four of them but the best three performances of the TMA will be used for your 30 percent grading. When you have completed each assignment, submit together with the tutor-marked assignment form, to your tutor before the deadline. If for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor for a discussion on the possibility of an extension. Extension will not be granted after the due date unless under exceptional circumstances. Final Examination and Grading The final examination will be a test of three hours. All areas of the course will be examined. Endeavour to read the unit all over before your examination. The final examination will attract 70 percent of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions, which reflects the kinds of self-assessment exercises and tutor-marked assignment you have previously encountered. Course Marking Scheme The table below shows the breakdown of the course marks. Assessment Marks Assignments- best three assignments out of four =30% Final Examination =70% Total =100% Presentation Schedule The dates for submission of all assignments and dates for examination will be communicated to you. Course Overview and Presentation Schedule Unit Title of Work Week Assignments activity Module 1 Diplomatic History of Contemporary Europe 1 Pre-Westphalia Europe Week 1 Assignment 1 2 The Emergency of Westphalia Week 2 Assignment 2 System 3 Europe in Search of Peace Week 3 Assignment 3 4 The Peace of Paris Week 4 Assignment 4 iv

9 Module 2 Diplomacy as a Concept 1 Definitions of Diplomacy Week 5 Assignment 1 2 The Origin of Diplomacy Week 6 Assignment 2 3 Professionalising Diplomacy Week 7 Assignment 3 4 Modernisation of Diplomacy Week 8 Assignment 4 Module 3 International Law 1 Historical Development of Week 9 Assignment 1 International Law 2 Systematisation of International Week 10 Assignment 2 Law 3 Sources of International Law Week 11 Assignment 3 4 Subject Matter and Jurisdiction of Week 11 Assignment 4 International Law Module 4 Features from 19th Century Diplomacy 1 Institutionalised Approaches to Week 12 Assignment 1 Control of Inter-State Relations 2 Approaches to Settlement of Week 13 Assignment 2 International Disputes 3 Emergence of International Week 14 Assignment 3 Organisation 4 International Law and Week 15 Assignment 4 International Courts of Justice Revision 1 Examination 1 Total 17 How to Get the Most from This Course In distance learning, the study units replace the University lecture. This is one of the advantages of open and distance learning-you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give you class work, the study units guides you on where to read, your text materials or set books. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is a set of objectives. These objectives point out what you should be able to do at the end of the unit. These learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment you complete a unit, endeavour to check whether you have achieved the objectives; this will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually be either from your set books or from a v

10 reading section. The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble, contact your tutor; remember that your tutor s job is to help you. Below are the tips to guide you in achieving success in this course. a. Organise a study schedule to guide you through the course. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignment relate to the units. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide and write in your own dates and schedule of work for each unit. b. Once you have created your own study schedule, endeavour to stick to it. The major reason why students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you encounter difficulties with your schedule, please, contact your tutor. c. Study each unit one after the other. d. Assemble the study materials for the unit you are studying at any point in time. As you work through the unit, you will know what sources to consult for further information. e. Keep in touch with your study center. Up-to-date course information will be continuously available there. f. Submit your assignments well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due dates), keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignments carefully. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor. g. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit s objectives, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. h. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor s comments, both on the tutormarked assignment form and also the written comments on the ordinary assignment. i. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the Course Guide). Facilitators/Tutor and Tutorials Information relating to tutorials will be provided at the appropriate time. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and vi

11 provide assistance to you during the course. You must submit your tutor-marked assignment to the study centre well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be assessed by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor if you need help. Contact your tutor if: you do not understand any part of the study units or assigned readings you have difficulty with the exercises you have a question or problem with an assignment or with you tutor s comments on an assignment or with the grading of the assignment. You should try your best to attend tutorials. This is the only chance to have face-to-face contact with your tutor and ask questions which will be answered instantly. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion actively. Summary The Course Guide gives you an overview of what to expect in the cause of this study. The course introduces to you all that you need to know about the evolution of diplomacy and international law in Europe in the 19th Century and also teaches you the different peace conferences that took place during the period. vii

12 Course Code Course Title INR211 International Law & Diplomacy in Europe in the 19 th Century Course Team Ikedinma H. A. (Developer/Writer) - Vox (Nig) Ltd. Mr. Terhemba (Coordinator) - NOUN NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA viii

13 National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: Published By: National Open University of Nigeria First Printed 2012 ISBN: All Rights Reserved ix

14 CONTENTS PAGE Module 1 Diplomatic History of Contemporary Europe.. 1 Unit 1 Pre-Westphalia Europe. 1 Unit 2 The Emergence of the Westphalia System... 7 Unit 3 Europe in Search of Peace 13 Unit 4 The Peace of Paris. 20 Module 2 Diplomacy as a Concept.. 27 Unit 1 Definition of Diplomacy Unit 2 The Origins of Diplomacy Unit 3 Professionalising Diplomacy Unit 4 Modernisation of Diplomacy Module 3 International Law.52 Unit 1 Historical Development of International Law.. 52 Unit 2 Systematisation of International Law in 19th Century...58 Unit 3 Sources of International Law Unit 4 Subject Matter and Jurisdiction of International Law 71 Module 4 Features from the 19th Century Diplomacy 79 Unit 1 Institutionalised Approach to the Control of Inter-State Relations.. 79 Unit 2 Approaches to Settlement of International Disputes. 85 Unit 3 Emergence of International Organisations Unit 4 International Law and International Courts of Justice x

15 MODULE 1 DIPLOMATIC HISTORY OF CONTEMPORARY EUROPE Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Pre-Westphalia Europe The Emergence of the Westphalia System Europe in Search of Peace The Peace of Paris UNIT 1 PRE-WESTPHALIA EUROPE CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 Greece and the City-State System of Interactions 3.2 Interstate Relations under the Roman Empire 3.3 Decentralised Power in Europe 3.4 Developing Transnational Networks 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Core concepts in every field of study especially in international relations as an area of study were developed by historical circumstances. Policymakers on the other hand search the past for patterns and precedents to guide contemporary decisions. In general, the major antecedents to the contemporary international system are found in European-centered western civilisation. Great civilisation thrived in other parts of the world; of course, India and China among others have had extensive, vibrant civilisations before the historical antecedents of international law and diplomacy in 19th Century Europe. However, the European emphasis is justified on the basis that the contemporary international relations, both in theory and practical is rooted in the European experience. In this unit, we shall look at the period before This is referred to (in this course) as the Pre- Westphalia period. 1

16 The purpose of this historical overview is to trace important trends over time- the emergency of the state and the notion of sovereignty, the development of international state system. These trends have a direct impact on the evolving of diplomacy and international law as practiced in Europe in the nineteenth century. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: explain the historical overview of events prior to 19th century Europe list the events and trends of the past in Europe explain the emphasis in European centered civilisation in the 19th Century evaluate the impact of history on international relations as practiced today. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Greece and the City-State System of Interactions The classical Greek city-state system provides one of the antecedents for the New Westphalia order. The Greeks, organised independent citystates, were at the height of their power in 400 B.C and engaged in power politics as catalogued by Thucydides in history of the Peloponnesian War. As the militaries of the great city-states struggled, states carried on economic relations and trade with each other to an unprecedented degree. This environment clearly fostered the flowering of the strong philosophical tradition of Plato and Aristotle. In the citystates setting, each is an independent unit, conducting peaceful relations with each other, as they viewed for power. They became the precursor of the 19th Century diplomatic relations in Europe at the period. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discuss the historical overview of events prior to 19th Century Europe. 3.2 Inter-State Relations under Roman Empire Most of the Greek city-states were incorporated into the Roman Empire (50 BC 400 AD). The Roman Empire served as the precursor for large 2

17 political system. The leaders imposed order and unity by force on a large geographic expanse-covering much of Europe, the Mediterranean portions of Asia, the Middle East, and Northern Africa. Having conquered far-flung and diverse peoples, the Roman leaders were preoccupied with keeping the various units, tribes, kingdoms and states within their sphere of influence and ensuring that the fluid borders of the empire remained secure from the roving hordes to the North and East. In fact, the word empire came from the Roman experience, which was derived from the Latin imperium. The leaders imposed various forms of government, from Roman proconsuls to local bureaucrats and administrators, disseminating Latin language to the far reaches of the empire. They followed the practice of granting Roman citizenship to free peoples in the far-flung empire, while at the same time giving local rulers considerable autonomy to organise their own domain. Roman philosophers provide essential theoretical underpinning to the empire. In particular, Marcus Tullius ( BC) offered a mechanism for the uniting of the various parts of the empire. He proposed that men ought to be united by a law among nations applicable to humanity as a whole. However, such law among nation did not preclude Cicero s offering more practical advice to Roman leaders: he emphasised the necessity of maintaining state security by expanding resources and boundaries, while at the same time ensuring domestic stability (Cicero 1970). Above all, the Roman Empire provided the foundation for a larger geographic entity whose members, while retaining local identities, were united through universalisation of power. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 The Roman Empire served as the precursor for large political system. Discuss. 3.3 Decentralised Power in Europe When the Roman Empire disintegrated in the fifth century, power and authority became decentralised in Europe, other forms of interaction such as tourism, commerce, and communication flourished, not just among the elite, but also among merchants groups and common citizens. By 1000 AD, three civilisations had emerged from the rubble of Roman Empire. First was the Arabic civilisation, which had the largest geographic expanse, stretching from the Middle East and Persia through North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula? United under the religious and political domination of the Islamic Caliphate, the Arabic language, and advanced mathematical and technical accomplishment, the Arabic 3

18 civilisation was a potent force. The second civilisation was the Byzantine Empire located near the core of the old Roman Empire in Constantinople and united by Christianity. Third was the rest of Europe, where with the demise of the Roman Empire, central authority was absent, languages and culture proliferated, and the networks of communication and transportation developed by the Romans were disintegrating (Karen, 1999). Much of Western Europe reverted to feudal principalities, controlled by lords and tied to fiefdoms that had the authority to raise taxes and exert legal authority. Lords exercised control over vassals, the latter working for the lords in return for the right to work the land and acquire protection. Feudalism, which placed authority in private hands, was the response to the prevailing disorder. The preeminent institution in the medieval period was the church. Virtually all other institutions were local in origin and practice. Thus, authority was centered both in Rome and in its agents; the bishops were dispersed throughout medieval Europe or in the local fiefdom. The bishops, despite their overarching allegiance to the church, seized considerable independent authority. Economic life was also local. In the late eighth century, the church s monopoly on power was challenged by Carolu Magnus, or Charlemagne, the leader of the Franks (what is today called France). Charlemagne was granted authority to unite Western Europe in the name of Christianity against the Byzantine Empire in the East. The Pope made him emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In return, Charlemagne offered the Pope protection. The debate between religious and secular authority continued for several years with writers periodically offering their views on the subject. One of such writers was Dante Alighieri ( ), who argued in Dante, 1977 that there should be a strict separation of the church from political life. This question was not resolved until 300 years later at the Treaty of Westphalia. 3.4 Developing Transnational Network After 1000 AD, secular trends began to undermine both the decentralisation of feudalism and the universalisation of Christianity. Commercial activity expanded into large geographical areas as merchants traded along safer transportation routes, all forms of communication improved, new technology, such as water mills and windmills, not only made daily life easier, but also provided the first elementary infrastructure to support agrarian economies. Municipalities such as the reinvigorated city-states of northern Italy-Genoa, Venice, and Milan established trading relationships and met at key locations, 4

19 arranging for the shipment of commercial materials and even agreeing to follow certain diplomatic practices to facilitate commercial activities. These diplomatic practices led to establishment of embassies with permanent staff, sending special consuls to handle commercial disputes, and sending diplomatic messages through specially protected channels. These were the immediate precursors of contemporary diplomatic practices. The desire to expand economic intercourse further coupled with the technological inventions that made ocean exploration safer, fueled a period of European territorial expansion. Individuals from Spain and Italy were among the earliest of these adventures. Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World in 4292, Herman Cortes to Mexico in 1519, and Francisco Pizarro to the Andes in During this age of exploration, European civilisation spread to distant shores. These events (the gradual incorporation of the underdeveloped peripheral arrears into the world capitalist economy, and the international capitalist system) marked the beginning of contemporary international relations. In the 1500s and 1600s as explorers and even settlers moved into the New World, the old Europe remained unsettled. In some key locales such as France, England, Aragon and Castile in Spain, feudalism was replaced by increasingly centralised monarchy. The move towards centralisation was highly protested against by the masses. The masses angered by taxes imposed by newly emerging states, rebelled and rioted. New monarchs needed the tax funds to build their armies. They used their armies to consolidate their power internally and to conquer more territory. Other parts of Europe were mired in the secular and religious controversy, Christianity on the other hand was turn by the catholic and protestant spilt. In 1648, that controversy inched its way toward resolution. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain the emphasis in European-centered civilisation in the 19th century. 4.0 CONCLUSION States had existed before Westphalia, and they had conducted relations with each other, but they had done so on different basis. The ancient world had known a succession of sprawling dynastic empires and tiny city-states, and it had known the vast of Roman Empire, which had encompassed the civilised Western Europe. However, it had never known a national state or a system of independent states resting upon something akin to the theory of sovereignty. 5

20 5.0 SUMMARY In studying diplomatic relations in the 19th century Europe, it is necessary to discuss the nature of the evolution of the states of Europe prior to the 19th century. Consequently, in this unit, we have traced the historical overview of important trends, overtime leading to the emergence of the concepts of diplomacy and international law in interstate relations of 19th Century Europe. It is thus, established that, the major antecedents to contemporary international system are found in European-centered Western civilisation. The European emphasis is justified on the basis that contemporary international relations, in both theory and practice, is rooted in the European experience. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Which of the historical periods have mostly influenced the development of contemporary inter-state relations? 2. The classical Greek city-state system provides one of the antecedents for the Westphalia order. Discuss 3. What led to the disintegration of Roman Empire in the fifth century? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Cicero, R. (1970). Roman Politics and Society. London: Oxford University Press. Dante, (1977). De Monrchia. In the Portable Dante. Paolo Milano (Ed.). New York: Pengun Press. Karen, M. (1999). Essentials of International Relations. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Norman, D. P. & Howard, C. P. (2007). International Relations (Third Revised Edition) India: A. I. T. B. S. Publishers. 6

21 UNIT 2 THE EMERGENCE OF THE WESTPHALIA SYSTEM CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 The Treaty of Westphalia 3.2 The Growth and Development of European Power 3.3 The European Revolutions 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION The 30 years war in Europe stemmed up from the protestant-catholic schism. It began with the protestant reformation and intensified by the catholic counter-reformation. It also involved dynastic rivalries of the Hapsburgs and the Bourbons as well as some issues among German Princes. After a long destructive struggle, the exhausted contenders accepted a religious and political settlement that paved way for a semblance of European stability. The Treaty of Westphalia formalised the nation state system in Europe through its recognition that the empire no longer commanded the allegiance of its parts and that the pope could not maintain his authority everywhere, even in spiritual matters. Thus, by 1648, the state system was fully established in Europe and the states Europe of were on their own establishing a form of diplomatic relations among themselves. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: evaluate the contributions of the Treaty of Westphalia to development of diplomatic relations in Europe in the 19th Century identify the major principles of the Westphalia Treaty explain the reasons for westernisation of international system. 7

22 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 The Treaty of Westphalia The 30 years war ( ) devastated Europe, with armies plundering the central Europe landscape, fighting battles and surviving by ravaging the civilian population. However, the Westphalia Treaty ended the conflicts but had a profound impact on the practice of international relations. First, the Treaty of Westphalia embraced the notion of sovereignty. Within a short period, virtually all the small states in central Europe attained sovereignty. The Holy Roman Emperor died and Monarchs in the West realised that religious conflicts had to be stopped. Consequently, the monarchs agreed to fight on behalf of either Catholicism or Protestantism. The monarch also gained the authority to choose the version of Christianity for his people. This means that the monarchs and not the church had religious authority over the people. This development showed general acceptance of sovereignty and it made the sovereign to enjoy exclusive rights within a given territory. With the power of the pope and the Emperor stripped by the Westphalia Treaty, the notion of the territorial state was accepted. Secondly, the sovereigns had seen the devastating effects of mercenaries fighting wars. Thus, after the Westphalia Treaty, sovereigns sought to establish their own permanent national militaries. The growth of such forces led to increasingly centralised control as the new states had to collect taxes to pay for these militaries and the sovereigns assumed absolute control over the troops. As a result, the state with a national army emerged, its sovereignty was acknowledged, and its secular base was firmly established. Thirdly, the Treaty of Westphalia established a core group of states that dominated the world until the beginning of the 19th Century. These states include Austral, Russia, Prussia, England, France and the United Provinces (Netherlands and Belgium). Those in the West (England, France and the United Provinces) underwent an economic revival under the ages of capitalism, while those in the East (Prussia and Russia) reverted to feudal practices. During this period, private enterprises were 8

23 encouraged in the West. These states improved infrastructure to facilitate commerce and great training companies and bank emerged. In contrast, in the East, serfs remained on the land and economic change was stifled. However in both regions, absolutist states dominated. The Treaty of Westphalia, European politics was dominated by multiple rivalries and shifting alliances till the end of 18th Century. These rivalries were also played out in regions beyond Europe, where contending European states vied for power. The most notable one was Great Britain and France in North America. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 What do understand by sovereignty? 3.2 The Growth and Development of European Power Europe was the centre of world politics in the 18th Century. At the beginning of the 19th Century, Europe occupied a position of power and importance out of all proportion to its size. Vast areas of Asia and Africa were under the colonial rule of different European powers. Australia was a part of the British Europe. This domination and shaping of the world by the Europeans was a significant characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries. The growth of the European powers enabled Great Britain, France and other European countries to thrust outward and take control of North and South America and some parts of Asia. Within this period, other non-european empires or dynasties began to decline and fall. The process accelerated in the 19th Century, and the Europeans came to dominate the world and to see themselves as forming an exclusive club enjoying rights superior to other political communities (Rouke 2008). One reason for the global Westernisation was the scientific and technological advances that sprang from the renaissance in Europe. This sparked the industrial revolution, which began in the mid-17th Century in Great Britain. During the following 150 years, industrialisation spread rapidly but not globally, instead, it was mostly a western phenomenon, with the notable exception of Japan. Industrialisation and associated advances in weaponry and other technology had a profound impact on world politics. Europe gained strength compared with unindustrialised Asia and Africa. Industrialisation also promoted colonialism, because the manufacturing countries need to expand resources and markets to sustain their economies. Many industrialised countries also converted colonies as a 9

24 matter of prestige. The result was an era of Euro-American imperialism that spread to all corners of the globe. China, it should be noted, was never colonised, but after the 1840s, it was divided into spares of influence among the European powers. Only Japan and Siam (now Thailand) remained truly sovereign. Americans joined the scramble for colonies and acquired Hawaii and Samoa in the 1890s and in 1898 added Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Moreover, the American military interventions in the Caribbean, the Central American Region became so frequent in the following decades that the true sovereignty of those countries was questionable. Even though, these colonial empires were for the most part, not long-lived, they still had a major deleterious impact that led to many revolutions in Europe within the period. 3.3 Revolutions in Europe A number of significant developments had taken place during the 18th Century. The industrial revolution that took place in Europe had the invention of steam engine by British James Watt in 1765 as the first step in the direction of industrial revolution. Within a very short period, the industrial development made modernisation possible not only in England, but also in France and Germany. Modernisation resulted into series of uprising against the European dominating imperial powers by the colonised states and empires. The two major revolutions recorded within this period were the American Revolution of 1776 against British rule and the French Revolution of 1879 against absolute rule. The 13 British colonies in North America declared their independence in After a bitter struggle between the British armed forces and the colonial army led by George Washington, the British Government had to accept the independence of the 13 colonies in The newly independent colonies framed their constitution in 1787, and set up the federal country the United States of America. The United States assumed the role of protector of all the republics in the new world because of Monroe Doctrine in She became the dominant power in the American continent. The third significant development was the French Revolution of With the slogan of liberty, equality and fraternity, a new era in European history began. The fourth major result of the European revolutions was the emergence of Russia and Prussia as powerful nations in Europe. The division of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria was the fifth important event of the 18th Century Europe. Parts of Poland were conquered by Russia and Prussia in In order to balance the power, 10

25 Austria annexed Poland Galicia province. Some more Polish territory was annexed in1793 by Russia, Prussia and Austria among themselves. Poland ceased to exist, but Polish nationalism could not be destroyed. Poland as a buffer state between Austria, Russia and Prussia was gone thereby creating tense situations between the three European powers. Each revolution was the product of enlightenment thinking as well as Social Contract Theorists. During the modernisation period, thinkers began to see individuals as rational, capable of understanding laws governing them and working to improve their conditions in society. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Identify the major events that led to the revolutions in Europe. 3.4 Aftermath of the Revolutions Two core principles emerged in the aftermath of the American and French revolutions. The first is that the absolutist rule is subject to limits imposed by man. In the Treats on Government, the English philosopher John Locke ( ) attacks absolute power and the notion of the divine right of kings. Locke argues that the state is a beneficial in situation created by ration men in order to protect both their national rights (life, liberty and property) and their self -interests. Men agree to establish government to ensure natural rights for all. The crux of Locke s argument is that political power ultimately rests with the people rather than with the leader or the monarch. The monarch derives his legitimacy from the consent of the governed (John Locke 1960). The second core principle that emerged at this time is nationalism, wherein the masses identify with their common past, their language, customs and practices is a natural outgrowth of the state. Nationalism leads people to participate actively in the political process. For instance, during the French revolution, a patriotic appeal was made to the masses to defend the nation and its new ideals. This appeal forged an emotional link between the masses and the state. These two principles-legitimacy and nationalism rose out of the American and French revolutions to provide the foundation for the politics in the 19th Century Europe (Karen 1999). SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Discuss the core principles that emerged after the America and French revolution. 4.0 CONCLUSION 11

26 We have attempted an analysis of the state system, which emerged in Europe through the Treaty of Westphalia including two of its corollaries sovereignty and nationalism. The history of the growth and development of Europe, which led to the revolutions in Europe in 18th and early 19th Century were also highlighted. We noted that sovereignty is the legal theory, which sustains the state and the state system, and that nationalism is the moving spiritual or emotional force of the state. They have led to revolutions, wars and to international anarchy. They are perhaps the most formidable forces that mobilised the European states in the 19th Century to search and inculcate the concept of diplomacy and international law in the inter-state relations to ensure peaceful coexistence for building a true European community. 5.0 SUMMARY Modernisation paved way for nationalism, which prepared the people for the revolutions that occurred in Europe in 18th Century. Its immediate cause was the imperialism drive of the European states against themselves. It is most obvious result was the triumph of principle of national self-determination in Central and Eastern Europe. The last of the non-national empires on the continent were shattered in the cause of the revolutions and from their ruins were constructed new or enlarged European states, which set in the 19th Century to search for peaceful means of existence through diplomacy and international law. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT 1. Write short notes on: (a) (b) (c) Nationalism Revolution and Sovereignty. 2. Give a detailed account of the American and French revolutions. 3. What are the major contributions of the Treaty of Westphalia to the development of early Europe? 4. Scholars usually designate 1648 (the date of the Treaty of Westphalia) as the time when the state system began to take on its modern form. Discuss. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING John, L. (1960). Two Treats on Government. England: Cambridge University Press. 12

27 John, T. R. (2008). International Politics on the World Stage, (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Kaven, M. (1999). Essentials of International Relations. New York: W. W. Norton & Company Incorporated. Khanna, V. N. (2004). International Relations, (Fourth Revised Edition). New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd. UNIT 3 EUROPE IN SEARCH OF PEACE CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1 The Congress of Vienna ( ) 3.2 Balance of Power 3.3 Breakdown and Solidification of Alliances 3.4 The Concert of Europe 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION The 19th Century was described as a combination of quest for peace, nationalism, economic imperialism and balance of power in the European continent. Nationalism became the dominant factor after the French Revolution. It facilitated unification of Germany and Italy, gave birth to demand for nation-states; and indeed after the First World War, a number of states were created in Europe on the basis of nationalities. Economic imperialism was the outcome of ultra-nationalism, industrial revolution and capitalism. Vast empires were built by Britain, France, Germany, Portugal and European powers. These overseas colonies were used for securing raw materials and for marketing the finished goods of industrialised ruler nations of Europe. Most of Asia and practically the entire Africa came under their imperial rule. Furthermore, within Europe, the principle of balance of power gave rise to frequent conflicts and secret diplomatic moves. If a country became or try to become more powerful than others do, her strength had to be balanced by other nations either individually or collectively. European politics was guided by the objective not to allow any country to become a powerful nation. In other words, balance of power was sought to be maintained. This led to formation of power blocks and military 13

28 alliances. These alliances were to some extent responsible for the First World War, which began in OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: explain the major events that led to Congress of Vienna identify the major principles of balance of power evaluate steps taken by the European nations to ensure peace list the contributions of nationalism to the practice of diplomacy in the19th Century Europe. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 The Congress of Vienna ( ) The Congress of Vienna ( ) was an important landmark in the diplomatic history of Europe. We had pointed out in the last unit that the famous French revolution took place in A promising army Commander, Napoleon Bonaparte took advantage of instability created by the revolution. He assumed the title of Emperor of France. Under his leadership, France became the most powerful nation in Europe. He launched aggressive attacks against various European countries. His ambition was to rule the entire Europe and even beyond. Thus, adventurism policy of France turned all-important states of Europe against her. Despite many victories, France could not conquer many European areas due to the supremacy of the British Navy on the seas. Napoleon conquered many countries. Nationalism assumed dominant position in France as well as in the countries that had become victims of her aggression. Napoleon appointed his brother Joseph as the King of Spain. This aroused national sentiments of the people of Spain against the new ruler as well as France. Napoleon s fall became imminent by1814. The victorious nations concluded the first Treaty of Paris with France on May 30, Napoleon was sent to the Island of Elba, and the legitimate ruler of Spain (King Louis xviii) was reinstated. France was 14

29 restored to her pre-revolution frontiers. It was agreed in the Treaty of May 1814 that a European Congress would be held in Vienna (Austria) to redraw the political map of Europe (Khanna, 2004). The Congress of Vienna met in September 1814 and accomplished its difficult task after more than six months. The settlement of Vienna was signed by European nations on June 9, 1815 a few days before the final defeat of Napoleon. We have seen that after May 1814 Napoleon was defeated and sent to Island of Elba. However, during the summer of 1815, he gathered a large army and moved to meet his enemy in the North. He was however defeated at the famous waterloo. The defeat of Napoleon and the spanning of the settlement at Vienna marked an important watershed in European politics. According to Albrecht-Carrie the period of the French revolution and the Napoleonic episode was a major convulsion in the annals of Europe (Khanna, 2004 ). Leading diplomats of Europe assembled at Vienna and concluded a Permanent Peace Pact. Practically all the European rulers attended the Congress. The prominent participants of the congress included Czar Alexander of Asia, Talleyrand as the representatives of Louis xviii of France, the Duke of Wellington and Castlereagh representing Britain and Austrian Chancellor (Prime Minister) Metternich. The Congress restored legitimacy and boundaries of several European countries were redrawn. Metternich chaired the Congress. The Congress decided not to push legitimacy so far as to restore the large number of small German states of However, a loose German Confederation of 38 states was created. Austria tried to dominate the confederation. The main agency for the enforcement of the Vienna settlement was the Quadruple Alliance of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia. Prussia was the most powerful of all the German states. The alliance became Quintuple Alliance with the addition of France in However, the hope of lasting peace was short-lived. New combinations and alliances took the place of old order. Different countries tried to establish their hegemony over others. These rivalries were aggravated by the rise of nationalism towards the end of the 19th Century. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discuss the events that led to the Congress of Vienna. 3.2 Balance of Power The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte confronted Britain and other nations of Europe with a threat that they disposed only after many years of war. The allies formed one coalition or alliance after another, but Napoleon seemed able to shatter all. Consequently, British sea power and finances 15

30 combined with the nationalism that Napoleon himself had evoked in Europe brought allied success and the restoration of relative peace. How was the relative peace in Europe achieved, managed and preserved for the relative period it lasted? The answer lies in the concept called Balance of power. The concept of balance of power assumes that through shifting of alliances and countervailing pressures no one power or combination of powers will be allowed to grow so strong as to threaten the security of the rest. Thus, in the 19th Century balance of power meant that the independent European states, each with relative equal power feared the emergence of any predominant state among them. Thus, the European states formed alliances to counteract any potentially more powerful faction thereby creating a power balance in Europe. The European states also promised in the Convention of April 23, 1814 to put an end to the miseries of Europe, and to found her repose upon a just redistribution of forces among the nations of which she is composed of. The ensuing conference, the famous Congress of Vienna of , sought to establish a new balance of power in Europe based upon the principles of legitimacy and, as far as possible, the preservation of the status quo. The treaties signed after 1815 were designed not only to quell revolution from below, but also to prevent the emergence of hegemony, such as France under Napoleon. The Vienna arrangements proved to be the last major peace settlement, which could be based unanimously and consistently on an avowed balance of power policy (Gulick, 1943). SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the concept of balance of power. 3.3 The Breakdown and Solidification of Alliances The balance of power, which was evolving from a simple to an increasing complex balance, was obviously an unstable one, which continued to threaten to break down into a global revolution until a more stable one develops or until other curative factors began to have effect. Thus, by the waning years of 19th Century, the balance of power system had weakened. Initially, the alliances had been fluid and flexible, with allies changeable, but later in the 19th Century, the alliances became solidified. Two contending camps emerged, the Triple Alliance, which comprises of Germany, Austria, and Italy in 1882 and the Dual Alliance, which comprises of France and Russia in In 1902, Britain broke 16

31 from her balancer role and joined a naval alliance with Japan to prevent a Russo-Japanese rapprochement in China. This alliance marked a significant turn, for the first time in history, the European state (Great Britain) turned to Japan an Asian country in order to thwart the European ally (Russia). In addition, in 1904, Britain joined with France in the Entente Cordiale. The end of the balance of power system as well as the historic end of the 19th Century came with the First World War. The two sides were enmeshed in a struggle between competitive alliances. This was made all the more dangerous by the German position. Germany was not satisfied with the solutions meted out at the Congress of Berlin. Germany still sought additional territory, even if it means the entire European territory, then the map of Europe would have to be redrawn. Germany being a latecomer to the core of European power, did not receive the diplomatic recognition and status its leaders desired. Thus, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the hair of to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1914 at Sarajevo, Germany encouraged Austria to crush Serbia. This is because Germany did not want to see the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was its major ally. Within the system of alliances, once the fateful shot had been fired, states honoured their commitments to their allies thereby sinking the whole continent in conflict. Through support for Serbia, the unlikely allies of Russia, France, and Great Britain became involved and through Austria, Hungary and Germany entered the fray. It was anticipated that the war would be short and decisive, but it was neither. Between 1914 and 1918, soldiers from more than a dozen countries endured the persistent degradation of trench warfare and the horrors of gas warfare. According to (Karen, 1999) more than 8.5 million soldiers and 1.5 million civilians lost their lives. Thus, symbolically, the 19th Century ended as the century of relative peacefulness ended in a system-wide confrontation calling for a new diplomatic relations guided by a general rule (international law) for a better relationship among European nations and the world at large. 3.4 The Concert of Europe The Concert of Europe was successful application of peace idea by European states, which had been entertained for centuries and had promoted many earlier experiments in interstate co-operations. The alliance system, which emerged from the Congress of Vienna, entered in the Quadruple and Holy Alliances, extended, and applied at series of international conferences in the year following It was presumably based on just such concert and was in fact called the Concert of Europe. 17