THE ATOM. Chapter 8 OUTLINE GOALS. The Hydrogen Atom 8.8 Atomic Spectra 8.9 The Bohr Model 8.10 Electron Waves and Orbits 8.

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1 Chapter 8 THE ATOM OUTLINE Quantum Theory of Light 8.1 Photoelectric Effect 8.2 Photons 8.3 What Is Light? 8.4 X-Rays Matter Waves 8.5 De Broglie Waves 8.6 Waves of What? 8.7 Uncertainty Principle The Hydrogen Atom 8.8 Atomic Spectra 8.9 The Bohr Model 8.10 Electron Waves and Orbits 8.11 The Laser Quantum Theory of the Atom 8.12 Quantum Mechanics 8.13 Quantum Numbers 8.14 Exclusion Principle GOALS 1. Describe the photoelectric effect and discuss why the wave theory of light cannot account for it. 2. Explain how the quantum theory of light accounts for the photoelectric effect in terms of photons. 3. Compare the quantum and wave theories of light and discuss why both are needed. 4. Describe X-rays and interpret their production in terms of the quantum theory of light. 5. Discuss what is meant by the matter wave of a moving particle. 6. State the uncertainty principle and interpret it in terms of matter waves. 7. Distinguish between emission and absorption spectra and describe what is meant by a spectral series. 8. Give the basic ideas of the Bohr model of the atom and show how they follow from the wave nature of moving electrons. 9. Define quantum number, energy level, ground state, and excited state. 10. Explain the origins of emission and absorption spectra and of spectral series. 11. Explain how a laser works. 12. List the three characteristic properties of laser light. 13. Compare quantum mechanics and newtonian mechanics. 14. Describe what is meant by the probability cloud of an atomic electron. 15. List the four quantum numbers of an atomic electron according to quantum mechanics together with the quantity each governs. 16. State the exclusion principle. 108

2 CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 8 introduces the science of quantum mechanics and discusses how modern quantum theory has enhanced our understanding of puzzling phenomena such as the photoelectric effect, the waveparticle nature of light and of moving objects, and the behavior of atomic electrons. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is stated, and newtonian mechanics is shown to be an approximate version of quantum mechanics. The Bohr model of the atom is discussed and compared with the modern quantum theory of the atom. The four quantum numbers needed to specify the physical state of an atomic electron are discussed, and Pauli's exclusion principle is stated. CHAPTER OUTLINE 8-1. Photoelectric Effect A. The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when light shines on it. B. The discovery of the photoelectric effect could not be explained by the electromagnetic theory of light. C. Albert Einstein developed the quantum theory of light in Photons A. Einstein's quantum theory of light was based on a hypothesis suggested by the German physicist Max Planck in Planck stated that the light emitted by a hot object is given off in discrete units or quanta. 2. The higher the frequency of the light, the greater the energy per quantum. 3. All the quanta associated with a particular frequency of light have the same energy. The equation is E = hf 34 where E = energy, h = Planck's constant (6.63 x 10 J! s), and f = frequency. B. Einstein expanded Planck's hypothesis by proposing that light could travel through space as quanta of energy called photons. These photons, if of sufficient energy, could dislodge electrons from a metal surface, causing the photoelectric effect. C. Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect is hf = KE + w where hf = energy of a photon whose frequency is f, KE = kinetic energy of the emitted electron, and w = energy needed to pull the electron from the metal. 109

3 D. Although photons have no mass and travel with the speed of light, they have most of the other properties of particles What Is Light? A. Light exhibits either wave characteristics or particle (photon) characteristics but never both at the same time. B. The wave theory of light and the quantum theory of light are both needed to explain the nature of light and therefore complement each other X-rays A. Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovered X-rays in B. In 1912, Max von Laue showed that X-rays are extremely high frequency em waves. C. X-rays are produced by high energy electrons that are stopped suddenly; the electron KE is transformed into photon energy De Broglie Waves A. In 1924, the French physicist Louis de Broglie proposed that moving objects behave like waves; these are called matter waves. B. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m and speed v is where = de Broglie wavelength, h = Planck's constant, and mv = momentum of the particle. C. Matter waves are significant only on an atomic scale. D. A moving body exhibits wave properties in certain situations and exhibits particle properties in other situations Waves of What? A. The quantity that varies in a matter wave is called the wave function ( ). 2 B. The square of the wave function ( ) is called the probability density. For a given object, the greater the probability density at a certain time and place, the greater the likelihood of finding the object there at that time. C. The de Broglie waves of a moving object are in the form of a group, or packet, of waves that travel with the same speed as the object. 110

4 8-7. Uncertainty Principle A. The uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of a particle at the same time. B. The discoverer of the uncertainty principle was Werner Heisenberg. C. The position and motion of any object at a given time can only be expressed as probabilities Atomic Spectra A. A gas whose electrons have absorbed energy is said to be excited. B. A spectroscope is an instrument that disperses the light emitted by an excited gas into the different frequencies the light contains. C. An emission spectrum consists of the various frequencies of light given off by an excited substance. D. A continuous spectrum consists of all frequencies of light given off by an excited substance. E. An absorption spectrum consists of the various frequencies absorbed by a substance when white light is passed through it. F. The frequencies in the spectrum of an element fall into sets called spectral series The Bohr Model A. The Niels Bohr model of the atom, proposed in 1913, suggested that an electron in an atom possesses a specific energy level that is dependent on the orbit it is in. An electron in the innermost orbit has the least energy. B. Electron orbits are identified by a quantum number n, and each orbit corresponds to a specific energy level of the atom. 1. Electrons cannot possess energies between specific energy levels or orbits. 2. An electron can be raised to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon or, by emitting a photon, fall to a lower energy level. 3. When an electron "jumps" from one orbit (energy level) to another, the difference in energy between the two orbits is hf, where h is the frequency of the emitted or absorbed light. C. An atom having the lowest possible energy is in its ground state; an atom that has absorbed energy is in an excited state Electron Waves and Orbits A. An electron can circle a nucleus only in orbits that contain a whole number of de Broglie wavelengths. B. The quantum number n of an orbit is the number of electron waves that fit into the orbit. 111

5 8-11. The Laser A. A laser is a device that produces an intense beam of single-frequency, coherent light from the cooperative radiation of excited atoms. B. The word laser comes from light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. C. Lasers use materials whose atoms have metastable states, which are excited states with relatively long lifetimes. 1. Ruby lasers use xenon-filled flash lamps to excite chromium ions in ruby rods. 2. Helium-neon lasers use an electric discharge to bring the atoms of the gas mixture to metastable levels. D. The metastable atoms, as they return to their ground states, create photons all of the same frequency and all of whose waves are coherent or exactly in step Quantum Mechanics A. The theory of quantum mechanics was developed by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and others during the mid-1920s. B. According to quantum mechanics, the position and momentum of a particle cannot both be accurately known at the same time. Only its most probable position or momentum can be determined. C. Quantum mechanics includes newtonian mechanics as a special case Quantum Numbers A. According to quantum theory, an electron is not restricted to a fixed orbit but is free to move about in a three-dimensional probability cloud. 2 B. Where the probability cloud is most dense (where has a high value), the greatest probability of finding the electron exists. C. Three quantum numbers determine the size and shape of the probability cloud. 1. The principal quantum number n governs the electron's energy and average distance from the nucleus. 2. The orbital quantum number l determines the magnitude of an atomic electron's angular momentum. 3. The magnetic quantum number m l specifies the direction of an atomic electron's angular momentum. 4. The spin magnetic quantum number m s of an atomic electron has two possible values, +1/2 or -1/2, depending on whether the electron aligns itself along a magnetic field (+1/2) or opposite to the field (-1/2) Exclusion Principle A. The exclusion principle, first proposed by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, states that only one electron in an atom can exist in a given quantum state. B. Each atomic electron must have a different set of quantum numbers n, l, m, and m. l s 112

6 KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS The questions in this section will help you review the key terms and concepts from Chapter 8. Multiple Choice Circle the best answer for each of the following questions. 1. Investigation of the photoelectric effect led to the discovery that a. electrons exist b. photons have no mass and travel with the speed of light c. light has both wave properties and particle properties d. light is a form of electromagnetic energy 2. In the equation E = hf, h stands for a. light frequency b. Planck's constant c. wavelength d. particle momentum 3. When X-rays are produced by an x-ray tube a. electron KE is transformed into photon energy b. x-ray photon energy is transferred to electrons c. the effect is the same as the photoelectric effect d. there is a direct relationship between the number of electrons emitted in the tube and the energy of the X-rays produced 4. The momentum of a proton and an electron are calculated. The proton is shown to have more momentum than the electron; therefore, the de Broglie wavelength of the proton is a. longer than the de Broglie wavelength of the electron b. shorter than the de Broglie wavelength of the electron c. the same as that of the electron d. unable to be determined 5. Concerning an atomic electron, it is impossible to determine both its exact position and its exact at the same time. a. mass b. momentum c. charge d. quantum number 113

7 6. Which one of the following objects is not governed by the uncertainty principle? a. an automobile b. an atomic electron c. an atom d. all of these objects are governed by the uncertainty principle 7. According to the Bohr model of the atom, an atomic electron a. in the innermost orbit has the most energy b. cannot jump to an orbit of higher energy by absorbing energy c. can have only certain particular energies d. has no fixed orbit 8. The quantum number n of an electron orbit equals a. the number of electrons that can occupy the orbit b. the number of electron waves that fit into the orbit c. the speed of the electrons as they move about the nucleus d. the number of photons the orbital electrons emit when each jumps to a lower energy level 9. Which one of the following best describes laser-produced light? a. multiple-frequency incoherent light b. multiple-frequency coherent light c. single-frequency incoherent light d. single-frequency coherent light For an electron circulating in a probability cloud, where has a high value a. the electron has the highest probability of being found b. the electron is least likely to be found c. the probability of finding the electron is zero d. the probability of finding the electron cannot be determined Refer to the above drawings to answer questions 11 through 13. The drawings represent light of different frequencies striking a metal surface. 114

8 11. The drawing demonstrates the a. electromagnetic effect b. photoelectric effect c. production of X-rays d. creation of electrons 12. Compared to red light, blue light a. travels faster than red light b. is dimmer than red light c. has a higher frequency than red light d. has more photons than red light 13. If the brightness of the blue light was increased a. fewer fast electrons would be emitted b. more fast electrons would be emitted c. there would be no change in the number of fast electrons emitted d. many slow electrons would be emitted Refer to the above drawing to answer questions 14 through 16. The drawing represents the wave description of a moving object. 14. The waves associated with the wave behavior of a moving particle are called a. particle waves b. probability waves c. matter waves d. electromagnetic waves 15. The symbol stands for a. particle function b. probability function c. de Broglie function d. wave function 115

9 16. The drawing indicates a wide wave packet. Which one of the following properties cannot be precisely determined? a. de Broglie wavelength b. position of the particle c. particle's momentum d. probability density True or False Decide whether each statement is true or false. If false, briefly state why it is false or correct the statement to make it true. See Chapters 1 or 2 for an example. 1. All the quanta associated with a particular frequency of light have the same energy. 2. Like light, electrons also exhibit particle characteristics and wave characteristics. 3. If a proton and an electron both have the same momentum, their de Broglie wavelengths are equal The larger the value of at a given place and time for a given particle, the lower the probability of finding the particle there at that time. 5. The de Broglie waves associated with a moving object travel with the same speed as the object. 6. The narrower the wave packet of a moving particle, the more precisely the particle's momentum can be specified. 7. One of the advantages ruby lasers have over helium-neon lasers is that the light of the ruby laser is produced continuously, not as separate flashes. 8. Newtonian mechanics is an approximate version of quantum mechanics. 116

10 9. The larger the principal quantum number (n) is for a given atomic electron, the closer the electron tends to be toward the nucleus. 10. It is impossible for any two electrons in an atom to have the same set of quantum numbers. Fill in the Blank 1. In the effect, electrons are emitted from a metal surface when a light beam is directed on it. 2. The quantity that varies in a matter wave is called the (2 words). 3. The principle states that it is impossible to simultaneously know both the exact position and momentum of a particle. 4. A(n) is a device that disperses the light emitted by an excited gas into the different frequencies the light contains. 5. A(n) spectrum is produced when white light passes from a glowing source through a cool gas. 6. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the radius of each electron orbit is proportional to the square of the orbit's number. 7. An atom emits a(n) when returning from an excited energy state to its ground state. 8. An atom has the lowest possible energy when it is in it (2 words). 9. A(n) is a device that produces an intense beam of single-frequency light. 10. The densest part of a(n) (2 words) is where an electron is likely to be found. 11. The quantum number governs an electron s energy and its average distance from the nucleus. 12. The quantum number determines the direction of an electron's angular momentum. 117

11 13. The quantum number determines the magnitude of an electron's angular momentum. 14. The magnetic quantum number governs the direction of the spin of an electron. 15. The principle states that only one electron in an atom can exist in a given quantum state. Matching Match the name of the person on the left with the description on the right Max von Laue Wolfgang Pauli Albert Einstein Louis de Broglie Werner Heisenberg Niels Bohr Max Planck Erwin Schrödinger a. theory of hydrogen atoms b. exclusion principle c. matter waves d. quantum theory of light e. quanta f. identified X-rays as high frequency em waves g. his equation is mathematical basis of quantum mechanics h. uncertainty principle SOLVED PROBLEMS Study the following solved example problem as it will provide insight into solving the problems listed at the end of Chapter 8 in The Physical Universe. Review the mathematics refresher in the Appendix of the Study Guide if you are unfamiliar with the basic mathematical operations presented in this example. Example 8-1 A laser emits a beam of light having a wavelength of 650 nm. What is the quantum energy, in joules, of the photons? 118

12 Solution Remember that all the quanta (photons) associated with a particular frequency of light have the same energy. The equation to use is E hf Quantum energy = (Planck's constant)(frequency) To solve the problem, the value for f must be determined. We can use the formula for wavelength (from Table 6.1) to determine the value for f = v/f where = wavelength, v = speed, and f = frequency in Hz. Solving for f, the equation becomes f = v/ 7 The problem states the wavelength is 650 nm, which is m. The value of v is the speed 8 of light, or m/s. Substituting these values into the equation for frequency, we get f = v/ = ( m/s)/( m) = Hz We can determine the quantum energy of the photons of the laser beam by substituting the values for Planck's constant and frequency into the equation for quantum energy: E hf E ( J s)( Hz) 19 E J 119

13 WEB LINKS Investigate the photoelectric effect at: Investigate Bohr s model of the atom at: ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. b 9. d 10. a 11. b 12. c 13. b 14. c 15. d 16. b True or False 1. True 2. True 3. True 4. 2 False. The larger the value of at a given place and time for a given particle, the higher the probability of finding the particle there at that time. 5. True 6. False. The narrower the wave packet of a moving particle, the more precisely the particle's position can be specified. 7. False. Helium-neon lasers operate continuously; ruby lasers produce separate flashes. 8. True 9. False. The larger the principal quantum number (n) is for a given atomic electron, the farther the electron tends to be from the nucleus. 10. True Fill in the Blank 1. photoelectric 6. quantum 11. principal 2. wave function 7. photon 12. magnetic 3. uncertainty 8. ground state 13. orbital 4. spectroscope 9. laser 14. spin 5. absorption 10. probability cloud 15. exclusion Matching 1. g 2. c 3. e 4. d 5. i 6. b 7. a 8. f 9. h 120