TOURISM AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Transcription

1 TOURISM AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP International Perspectives EDITED BY JOVO ATELJEVIC and STEPHEN J. PAGE Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford ELSEVIER Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

2 Contents LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS l/ UOCJ xv xvii xix xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1 Jovo Ateljevic and Stephen Page Background 1 Structure of this Book 3 Part One Understanding the Conceptual Basis of Tourism Entrepreneurship CHAPTER 2 Tourism Entrepreneurship - Concepts and Issues 9 Jovo Ateljevic and Lan Li Learning Outcomes 9 Introduction : 9 Tourism: Concepts, Forms and Significance 10 Nature-based Tourism 11 Mountain and Winter (or Ski) Tourism 11 Adventure and Youth Tourism 12 Spa and Wellness Tourism 12 Urban, City and Cultural Tourism 13 Religious or Pilgrimage Tourism 14 Maritime Tourism 14 The Tourism Product: What Makes it Specific? 15 Tourism: An Industry, Economic Contributors, Process of Development 16 Economic Significance: The Problem of Measurement 17 Tourism Development: From Boosterism to Sustainability - From Entrepreneurship to Entrepreneurism 18 Tourism and Entrepreneurship 22

3 vi Contents Entrepreneurship: A General Overview 22 Institutional and Collective Entrepreneurship 24 Entrepreneurship Research in Tourism: How Far Has it Gone? 24 -~ Numbers of Articles Published Types of Research Undertaken 26 Focal Areas 27 Research Directions 28 Questions for Discussion 31 CHAPTER 3 Introduction and Overview to the Entrepreneur and Entrepreneurial Process 33 Elizabeth Chell Learning Outcomes 33 Introduction 33 The Psychology of the Entrepreneur 35 Model (i) B/ P 35 Model (ii) B/ S 36 Model (iii) B/P, S (P x S) 37 The Conceptualization of Traits 41 The Entrepreneurial Process 41 The Individual-Opportunity Interchange 43 The Impact of Culture and the Socio-economy 45 Summary and Conclusions 48 Questions for Discussion 49 Part Two CHAPTER 4 Creative Use of Entrepreneurship and Processes of Social Innovation Sustaining Creative Entrepreneurship: The Role of Innovation Systems 55 Edward H. Huijbens; Anne-Mette Hjalager; Peter Bjo'rk; Sara Nordin and Arvid Flagestad Learning Outcomes 55 Introduction 55 Section I: The Architecture of Innovation Systems 56 National, Regional, Sectoral and Technological Innovation Systems.. 58 Components in Innovation Systems 60 Innovation Systems and their Complexity 63 Section II: Innovation Systems in Tourism 63 Some Basic Common Features of Innovation Systems 64

4 Contents vii Entrepreneurs and Their Relations 66 An Entrepreneurial Spirit as a Driving Force 70 Summary and Conclusion ; 72 Questions for Discussion 73 CHAPTER 5 Women Empowerment Entrepreneurship Nexus in Tourism: Processes of Social Innovation Linda W.J. Peeters and Irena Ateljevic 75 Learning Outcomes.7 75 Introduction 75 Mapping the Literature 76 (Tourism) Entrepreneurship 76 Women Entrepreneurship 77 Women Entrepreneurship in Tourism 80 Community Development and Women Empowerment in Tourism 82 The Nexus?...: 86 Method 86 Case Studies 87 Case Study One Case Study Two 87 Case Study Three 88 Conclusion 88 Questions for Discussion 89 CHAPTER 6 Entrepreneurs, Institutions and Institutional Entrepreneurship: New Light through Old Windows? 91 Thomas Forbes Learning Outcomes 91 Introduction 91 Section I: Entrepreneurship 91 Section II: Institutions 93 The Role of Interest and Agency 93 Organizational Fields 94 Institutional Entrepreneurship 94 Section III: Case Studies 96 Case Study One: The European Union's Single Market Programme.. 96 Case Study Two: Collective Institutional Entrepreneurship - Global Climate Policy 99 Section IV: Bringing in the Collective in Institutional Entrepreneurship 101

5 viii Contents Discussion and Conclusion 103 Questions for Discussion 105 CHAPTER 7 Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Tourism: Public Sector Experiences of Innovation Activity in Tourism in Scandinavia and Scotland 107 Julie Franchetti and Stephen J. Page Learning Outcomes 107 Introduction 107 Tourism and Innovation: The Conceptual Basis 109 What is Innovation? 109 Knowledge Management to Promote Innovation in Tourism 113 Scottish Enterprise: Its Role in Economic Development 116 Scottish Enterprise and Innovation 121 Scottish Enterprise Success Factors for Innovation 123 Implications of the Scottish Enterprise to Innovation in Tourism 128 Summary 129 Questions for Discussion 130 Part Three Tourism Entrepreneurship Mediating the Global-Local Divide CHAPTER 8 Entrepreneurial Crafts and Fhe Tourism Industry 133 Ian Fillis Learning Outcomes 133 Defining Craft and the Craft Enterprise 133 Cultural and Economic Impacts of the Craft Firm 137 The Craft Firm in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland 138 A Profile of the Craft Firm and its Owner/Manager 140 Creating the Market for Crafts 142 The Crafts as Part of a Creative Cluster 143 The Celtic Connection and the Link with Tourism 144 Conclusions: Using Creativity to Attract Interest from Potential Customers 146 Questions for Discussion 147 CHAPTER 9 Tourism Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 149 Jovo Ateljevic Learning Outcomes 149 Introduction 149 Understanding of the New Zealand Context 151

6 Contents ix Theoretical Context of the Bottom-up Approach to the Regional Development 152 Importance of Small (Tourism) Firms: An Overview 153 Wairarapa 154 STFs and Regional Development 156 Regional Tourism Development: The Institutional Context 158 Obstacles and Supports for the Development s of Small Tourism Firms 158 Regulatory Requirements 158 External Support Structures: Enhancing Local Entrepreneurship 159 Local Networking: Barriers and Incentives for Tourism Development 162 Entrepreneurial Behaviour of Small Business Owner/Managers 163 Tourism Sustains the Local Economy 165 'Outsiders' Drive Regional Tourism Development 165 Private Sector Relationships - Financial Services 166! Banks 166 Accountants 166 Summary of the Findings 167 Key Lessons from the New Zealand Experience - ' Theoretical Implications 169 Policy Implications and Further Research 170 Questions for Discussion 171 CHAPTER 10 Entrepreneurial Wildlife Exploitation in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview {'. 173 Peter Rosa and Patricia Joubert Learning outcomes 173 Introduction 173 Theoretical Issues 177 Consumptive Exploitation of African Wildlife 180 Mass Exploitation and Protection in the Imperial and Colonial Eras 180 Illegal Exploitation of African Wildlife by Hunter Entrepreneurs and Traders in the Post-colonial Era 182 Sustainable Legal Wildlife Exploitation: The Growing Role of the Private Sector 184 Sustainable Consumptive Strategies for Wildlife Exploitation 186 High Value Consumptive Use of Wildlife: Big Game Hunting 189

7 x Contents Non-Consumptive Exploitation of Wilderness Areas 190 The Wildlife Media Industry 194 Restocking Wildlife 195 Discussion and Conclusions 196 Theoretical Thoughts 200 Questions for Discussion 201 CHAPTER 11 Bridging the Global-Local Divide: Lessons from Indigenous Entrepreneurship on Vatulele Island, Fiji 203 Stephen Doorne Learning Outcomes Introduction 203 Literature Review - Cultural Challenges for Entrepreneurial Modelling 206 Background and Context 209 Encountering the Global-Local Divide: Issues of Cultural Distance and Product Development 210 Bridging the Divide: Institutional Strategies and Local Networks 214 Conclusions: Global Lessons from Local Learning 217 Questions for Discussion..." = 218 CHAPTER 12 Building Institutional, Economic and Social Capacities: The Role of NGOs in the Context of Bosnia-Herzegovina & Serbia 223 Jovo Ateljevic and David Gallagher Learning Outcomes 223 Introduction 223 The Research Approach 225 The Geopolitical Context 226 Research Site: Social Solutions - An International NGO 227 Tourism Development: 'Social Solutions' in Action 229 The Process 230 State Structures 232 Organizational Forms 234 The Main Obstacles 236 Key Implications and Conclusions 237 Questions for Discussion 239

8 Contents xi Part Four Sectoral Strategies and Policy Issues for Tourism Entrepreneurship CHAPTER 13 The Public Policy Context of Tourism Entrepreneurship 243 C. Michael Hall Learning Outcomes 243 Introduction 243 Tourism Policy 246 Public Policies Affecting Tourism Entrepreneurship 250 Conclusions 256 Questions for Discussion 263 CHAPTER 14 A Multi-stakeholder Approach to Tourism Development 265 Marko Koscak and Tony O'Rourke Learning Outcomes 265 Introduction 265 The Content 266 The European and International Policy Dimension 267 Background: Analysis of Research and Evidence From Projects 268 ' Case Study: Dolenjska and Bela Krajina Heritage Trail 273 Introduction 273 Origins and Catalysts.". 274 Integrated Rural Community Development Project 274 International Team Heritage Trail Consultancy 275 Stages of Commercial Product Adaptation and Implementation 276 Learning Points.. '' 279 Implementation of the Heritage Trail Model in Less Advanced Situations 280 Fundamental Issues 280 The Vojvodina Case Study 280 A Success Story 281 The Entrepreneurial Community 282 Analysis: Critical Success Factors 283 Conclusion: Role of the Multi-stakeholder Approach 284 Questions for Discussion 285 CHAPTER 15 Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), Entrepreneurship and SMTEs 287 Dimitrios Buhalis and Hilary Murphy Learning Outcomes 287

9 xii Contents -«' The Strategic Role of SMEs in the EU 287 Small and Medium-sized Tourism and Hospitality Enterprises 288 Information Communication Technologies, the Internet and SMEs 289 ICT Applications and Technologies for SMEs 291 Cost and Benefits of ICTs for SMTEs 293 Diffusion of Innovations and Stages of ICT Engagement in SMEs 294 SMEs and e-marketing 296 The Future ICT Landscape and SMEs 299 Questions for Discussion 299 CHAPTER 16 Access to Finance: Delivery Structures and the Problems Faced by Micro and Small Tourism Entrepreneurs 301 Tony O'Rourke Learning Outcomes 301 Introduction 301 Definitions 301 The Financing Needs of SMEs 303 Peripherality 303 The Concept of the Social Economy 304 Financial Access Delivery Structures 305 The Obstacles 305 Access to Finance 306 Structures of Enterprise Financing 306 Bank Debt versus Equity? 307 BANs 307 Tourism and Financial Markets 308 Croatia 308 Slovenia 309 Serbia 309 Macedonia 309 Montenegro 310 Conclusions 310 Questions for Discussion 310 CHAPTER 17 Tourism Distribution: From Structure to Strategy 313 Douglas G. Pearce Learning Outcomes 313

10 Contents xiii Introduction 313 A Structural Approach 314 International Studies 315 Sectoral Studies 318 A Behavioural Approach 321 A Functional Approach 323 An Evaluative Approach 325 A Strategic Approach 327 Conclusions 329 Questions for Discussion 329 Acknowledgement 330 CHAPTER 18 Understanding and Influencing the Entrepreneurial Intentions of Tourism Students Andreas Walmsley and Rhodri Thomas Learning Outcomes 335 Introduction 335 Entrepreneurial Intent and Pathways to Entrepreneurship 336 The Experience of Tourism Students in SMEs 339 Perceived Feasibility/Perceived Behavioural Control 340 Perceived Desirability. 343 Propensity to Act 343 Conclusions 344 Questions for Discussion 344 CHAPTER 19 Tourism in Wartime Britain : Adaptation, Innovation and the Role of Thomas Cook & Son 347 Stephen J. Page and Alastair Durie Learning Objectives 347 Introduction 347 Thomas Cook: Its Role as a Travel Company and its Operational Performance in Wartime Conditions 349 Tourism and the First World War: A General Perspective 353 The Times Newspaper as a Source of Wartime Travel Conditions in Britain Domestic Tourism in the UK During the War 357 How Firms React to Crises 364 Thomas Cook & Sons - Tourism and Entrepreneurship: Questions and Answers 367 Cook: Questions and Answers 370

11 xiv Contents Thomas Cook and Post-War Recovery 371 Conclusion 373 Questions for Discussion 374 Acknowledgements 385 FURTHER READING 387 INDEX 441