AQA AS (A) Psychology Paper 2 Section C Research Methods [7182/2]

Transcription

1 AQA AS (A) Psychology Paper 2 Section C Research Methods [7182/2] Name: Phobias may be memories passed down through generations in DNA, according to a new research

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3 Student checklist for Year 1 Research Methods Sub-sections PUPIL: I have the relevant notes and homework TEACHER: The pupil does have all the relevant notes and home learning TEACHER: Pupil does not have all the relevant notes and home learning Experimental method, including laboratory, field and natural and quasi-experiments Studies using a correlational analysis Methods and Techniques Observational techniques Self-report techniques including questionnaire and interview structured and unstructured Aims Scientific process Hypotheses, including directional and nondirectional Experimental design (independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs) Design of naturalistic observations, including the development and use of behavioural categories Design of questionnaires and interviews Operationalisation of variables, including independent and dependent variables. Pilot studies Control of variables including extraneous and confounding variables Page 3

4 Issues of validity Awareness of the British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics Ethical issues and ways in which psychologists deal with them Selection of participants and sampling techniques, including random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and volunteer sampling. Implications of techniques. Demand characteristics and investigator effects Peer review Psychological research and the implications for the economy Presentation and interpretation of quantitative data including graphs, scatter grams and tables Data handling and analysis Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Measures of central tendency including median, mean, mode. Measures of dispersion including ranges and standard deviation, calculation of percentages Analysis and interpretation of correlational data. Positive, negative and zero correlations Qualitative data and collection techniques Statistical tests, including the sign test Primary and secondary data, including metaanalysis Distributions, including normal and skewed Page 4

5 This is the A-Z of research methods glossary terms that can be found throughout chapter 7 of your text book. As you meet these terms you can complete the definition and work on others at any time. Take time to go through the terms and group them into categories as a summary exercise - you should aim to do this by the end of the unit. Research methods glossary Definition Aims Bar chart Behaviour categories Bias Calculated value Case study Closed questions Confederate Confidentiality Confounding variable Content analysis Continuous variable Control Controlled observation Correlation Correlation coefficient Cost-benefit analysis Counterbalancing Co-variable Covert observation Page 5

6 Critical value Curvilinear correlation Debriefing Deception Demand characteristics Dependent variable [DV] Directional hypothesis Ecological validity Effect size Ethical guidelines (code of conduct) Ethical issues Ethics committee Event sampling Experiment Experimental design External validity Extraneous variable [EV] Field experiment Fraction Generalisation Histogram Historical validity Hypothesis Independent group design Independent variable [IV] Informed consent Page 6

7 Internal validity Inter-observer reliability Intervening variable Interview Interview bias Investigator effects Laboratory experiment Linear correlation Matched pairs design Mean Measure of dispersion Measures of central tendency Median Meta-analysis Mode Mundane realism Natural Experiment Naturalistic observation Negative correlation Negative skewed distribution Non-directional hypothesis Non-participant observation Normal distribution Observer bias One-tailed test Open questions Operationalise Page 7

8 Opportunity sample Order effect Order of magnitude Overt observation Participant observation Peer review Percentage Pilot study Population Population validity Positive correlation Positive skewed distribution Presumptive consent Primary data Privacy Probability (p) Protection from harm Qualitative data Quantitative data Quasi-experiment Questionnaire Random allocation Random sample Range Ratio Repeated measures design Review Page 8

9 Right to withdraw Sampling Scattergram Secondary data Sign test Significance Significant figure Skewed distribution Social desirability bias Standard deviation Standardised procedures Stratified sample Structured interview Structured observation Systematic sample Table of critical values Test statistic Time sampling Two-tailed test Unstructured interview Validity Volunteer bias Volunteer sample Zero correlation Page 9 If you announce your goals to others, you are less likely to make them happen because you lose motivation, studies confirmed

10 CAN DO CAN T DO WITH PARTICIPANTS [CDCDWP] Identify what each letter stands for: Page 197 C D C D W P Refer back to you aims: Research suggests that Short Term Memory (STM) cannot hold very much information. You are going to design and carry out an experiment to see whether the capacity of STM differs between two groups: A-level students and older people. Page 194 Decide how much information you will give to your participants in order to obtain informed consent. Write the consent form as if you are speaking to your participants. Consent form: Page 10

11 In small groups devise and justify an appropriate task for measuring the capacity of the short term memory [STM]. This might be a world list containing about 20 words. Think carefully about the materials you will use and explain why these variables need to be controlled, eg: length of words type of words number of words word presentation Page 180 Devise a set of standardised procedures that can be read to the participants so that they know what they will be doing during the research. Standardised procedures: Page 11

12 1. Decide upon and justify your choice of participants for the two conditions (the two age groups). Identify and justify your sampling method. Examples first: Pages The target population for a research study was sixth form students. How would you achieve a random sample of 30 sixth form students? 2. A researcher put a poster up in a hospital for participants for his study on work/life balance. What sampling method is being used? 3. Researchers were interested in how people perceived the increase in knife crime in their area. The researchers stood outside local shops and services and gathered information from passers by. What sampling technique? 4. A sixth form student was carrying out research on attitudes to violence on TV. They went into the common room at lunch time and asked those students who were present. What sampling technique? Now you: Refer back to you aims: Research suggests that Short Term Memory (STM) cannot hold very much information. You are going to design and carry out an experiment to see whether the capacity of STM differs between two groups: A-level students and Page 12

13 older people. Decide on your participants Justify your choice Identify your sampling method Justify your choice Page 13

14 Experimental Design "Erotomania" is a psychological disorder in which the affected people believe a famous person is in love with them Researchers use their participants in different ways in different experiments, depending on the situation. They weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of each design and make their decision. Use the textbook to find out about the three main methods of using participants, called designs. Page 184 Design Advantages Disadvantages Example study Independent groups Repeated measures Loftus & Palmer (1974) Eg. Give one group of Ps a test in a driving simulator after having drunk alcohol and the other group without having drunk alcohol. Eg. Test the group on the simulator and later give them a drink of alcohol and test the same group again. Matched pairs (participants) Kagan (1980) matched nursery and home group. Eg. Ps matched in important characteristics eg. driving ability and alcohol tolerance and then tested in one condition. Page 14

15 1. What are order effects? 2. How can researchers reduce them? 3. What is a control group and why are they used? At this stage you may be asked to conduct the research you have designed using participants from your college. You will need, therefore, to devise two more things: 1. A table to record the data collected 2. A debrief document. Design a suitable results table here be sure to include the ability to collect all the necessary raw data and areas to for mathematical calculations where appropriate. Devise a full debrief document that is suitable to be read out to your participants Page at 214 the end of the research. Be mindful of the ethical considerations required. Debrief: Pages Page 15

16 The issue of validity Reliability and validity are terms that are often confused and misused.. Page 16

17 Refer back to you aims: Research suggests that Short Term Memory (STM) cannot hold very much information. You are going to design and carry out an experiment to see whether the capacity of STM differs between two groups: A-level students and older people. Define then discuss the following with reference to this research activity. Realism Pages Internal Validity External Validity Page 17

18 Laboratory versus Field Experiments Pages & 189 Definition Laboratory experiment Field experiment Strengths Limitations APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE Page 187 Q8 Study Lab or Field? A Justify your choice B C Page 18

19 D E F Page 19

20 Natural versus Quasi Experiments Pages Definition Natural experiment Quasi- experiment Strengths Limitations Pages As you have seen all experiment types have advantages and disadvantages, there are two further considerations that need to be addressed when carrying our research. Demand Characteristics Investigator effect Page 20

21 Some common demand characteristics and potential investigator effects are: The use of single and double blind trials in clinical research to minimise these effects: Observational techniques NOTE: Look for links with Ethics Use the space below to map out all that you can about the reasons for carrying out observations in psychological research, the types of observations that can be done and any potential issues that might arise from them. Page 21

22 The key word definitions of overt and covert observations at the bottom of page 198 are incorrectly reversed in the first print copies of the 4 th edition textbook so check yours!! Pages Method Eg: provide an example of when you would choose this method Advantages Method Eg: provide an example of when you would choose this method Advantages Disadvantages Disadvantages Ethics Ethics Page 22

23 Researchers have multiple ways to gather primary data (both qualitative and quantitative) from participants, including: 1. Questionnaires a. Structured b. Self report c. Closed questions d. Open questions 2. Interviews a. Structured b. Unstructured 3. Observation (already covered) The next section will look at methods 1 and 2 above and evaluate them Pages The Likert scale (psychologist Rensis Likert) Your mind "rewrites" monotonous speech of boring people to make it sound more interesting Even-point scale Odd-point scale (allows for neutral responses) The use of Likert scales allows researchers to construct structured questionnaires that can be completed by participants at any time, in any way ie: online, paper copy. The researcher does not have to be present and the data collected is easily quantified. Complete this short questionnaire then Page 23

24 collect the data from your table: 1. I knew what the A level psychology course involved before starting this term = 2. I know what job opportunities I could consider with a psychology qualification = 3. Psychology is most likely to be my favourite subject this year = Table results tally the number of responses in each section. Question Remember to keep the responses as confidential as possible [ethics] This is an example of a structured questionnaire that can lead to interviewer bias and social desirability bias. Define these terms using an example from the 3 questions you just answered.. Pages Interviewer bias definition: [Link to investigator effects] Question that could result in this = Justify your question choice Social desirability bias definition: Page 24

25 Question that could result in this = Justify your question choice Questionnaires and Self report issues of validity? Annotate the questionnaire as you find issues Page 25

26 Comments: Page 26

27 Evaluating techniques: Thinking about the 4 main styles of data collection, identify strengths and limitations of each. Self-report Questionnaire Structured interview Unstructured interview A last word on research methods Pages As you go through the AS course you will encounter references to two more techniques, a systematic review which can lead to a data analysis technique called meta-analysis. You will encounter these terms specifically on: Page 135 Page 61 In the mean time make sure you have completed your glossary for them and look back to this section when you encounter these terms. Do note that the the referneces to other techniques on pages are only applicable to the Year 2 course. Page 27

28 Data analysis this section will look at the mathematical requirements for analysing data collected during research. 1. Correlations 2. Fractions, percentages and ratios 3. Measures of central tendency 4. Measure of dispersion 5. Graphs and tables 6. Statistical tests the sign test Pages 206, 207, Which scattergram is an example of a zero correlation and why? Page 28

29 APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE Page 207 parts a and b Draw a scattergram for the data on page 207, ensure that you fully label the 2 axis with variable 1 (ice cream sales) and variable 2 (violent crime). Question b what can you conclude? Page 29

30 The scattergram appears to show a significant positive correlation between the two variables. The significance is assessed against standard data tables depending on the statistical test used. The assessment is based on the size of the correlation coefficient and the number of pieces of data. So this is an example of cause and effect then? Yes? NO! Rarely in psychological research can we definitely claim a CAUSAL (that s causal not casual!!) relationship due to extraneous, confounding and intervening variables. So what could be an intervening variable between increased ice cream sales and increased aggression levels? Page 207 Strengths of correlations Limitations of correlations Page 30

31 To summaries be prepared to identify the pattern (or non-pattern) in a scattergram. You should be able to distinguish between plots that are tight together (strong) and those that are more spread (moderate). Note the additional use of the terms linear and curvilinear. Be clear on the distinction between a histogram and a bar chart (graph) (Note: the histogram Graph B on page 214 is incorrectly displayed why?) Page 214 The mathematical requirements make up 10% of the total marks on the exam papers for Year 1. You will need to remind your self about some basic maths concepts. Use theinformaton on page 211and the CAN YOU? section to refresh your memory about: 1. Fractions 2. Percetages 3. Ratios 4. Significant figues 5. Order of magnitude ` 6. Mathematical symbols ie: Page 211 Page 31

32 Taking measures. Research generates types of data that can be quantified quantitative. Spending money on others yields more happiness than spending it on yourself according to studies This data can then be mathematically processed and compared. Data can be described in 4 ways - NOIR Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio The two main ones that you will encounter over your 2 years are: Nominal Ordinal Page 212 Page 32

33 Try these examples then look at the bottom of the page, the answers are upside down. Cover them now if you can t be trusted! Note: there is no Q3 Hint: remember, ratio data has the potential for a value of 0 1 nominal 2 ratio 4 ratio 5 ordinal (although can be thought of as interval too) 6 nominal Page 33

34 Pages Measures of central tendency Mean Measures of dispersion (to vary or not to vary = variation) Range Median Standard deviation Mode Use the text book to provide a definition and example Page 34

35 So, are your distributions normal or skewed? Page 215 The most commonly used distribution curve is for IQ scores. Using the graph answers these questions: 1. What is the mean IQ score? 2. What percentage of people have an IQ score from ? 3. What percentage of people deviate from the mean by -4 standard deviation points? 4. By law you are considered mentally incapable if your IQ is 70 or below, how much must you have deviated from the norm? In all cases the graphs show an increase in the value of the data on the X axis so we say that the data moves in a positive direction from left to right across the graph. When there is very little data represented on one side or other this results in a skewed graph. Page 35

36 Page 215 Examples: Research information If 0-50 in a normal score for mental health and 50+ represents people with depression, in a sample of 100 participants you would expect to find very few in the 50+ section (the positive zone) compared to the normal zone. If an exam paper was far too easy one year you would expect to see a lot of participant data represented in the positive zone but very little in the negative zone. The lack of data in the negative zone (left hand side) of the graph causes the curve to be skewed Distribution result The lack of participant scores in the positive zone would lead to a right-skewed distribution The lack of participant scores in the negative zone would lead to a left-skewed distribution This is an example of the ceiling effect. How would the results The lack change of data for in a the positive zone floor effect? (right hand Page side) 205 of the graph causes the curve to be skewed For a normal distribution the mean, median and mode are all in the same place their values are equal. Comment on the impact on these central tendencies for a left and right skewed distribution. Remember the values on the X axis increase from left to right Skew Mean Median Mode Left Page 36

37 Right This question is not actually asking you to do a calculation but to describe HOW you would carry out the calculation. Page 37

38 Pages In psychological research we use a probability (p) of 0.05%. This is related to chance, so we state results as being statistically significant at p=0.05. But.What does that actually mean? I think this means. This means So why not use p=0.01? When does this happen? Page 38

39 P=0.001 For Year 1 you will only need to know about the sign test next year you will go further with the other inferential statistics tests and the implications of probability values. Page 39

40 The first one (A) is done for you: Why can the sign test be used for this example? Is the hypothesis one or two tailed? What is the calculated value Compare the calculated value with the critical value What conclusions can be made A B C D The data is paired. The same person is tested twice. Directional, one-tailed S=5 Critical value for one-tailed at p=0.05 for 16 participants is 4 Calculated value is greater than critical value so the results are not significant at p=0.05 Page 40